Human Behavior in Organizations

(BM40004)
Collaboration and Teamwork
Aradhna Malik
Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
1
Collaboration
 Collaboration
 Collaboration – to labor together (Stewart & Logan, 2002)
 Collaboration (Marshall, 1995) – a principle based
process of working together that produces
trust, integrity and breakthrough results by
building true consensus, ownership and
alignment in all aspects of the organization.

3
The Process of Collaboration (Marshall, 1995)

 Forming a decision – making framework

 Finding a common denominator for
relationships
 Adopting a business transformation
methodology
 In an organizational gyroscope
 With a new and improved work ethic

4
Components of collaborative design
(Marshall, 1995)

 A collaborative culture
 Collaborative leadership
 A strategic vision
 Collaborative team processes
 A collaborative structure

5
Organizational
Relationships

6
Typical pattern of relationships
Initiating Maintenance

COMMUNICATION

Death Decline
Stages of relationships (Gamble & Gamble, 2000)
Initiating Experimenting Intensifying
Context
Integrating
Termination
Perceptions

Stagnating Bonding
Communication Rules

Avoiding Circumscribing Differentiating

Development and analysis of
relationships (Gamble and Gamble, 2002)
 Initiating: Icebreakers: Signals that impel us to initiate
a conversation or tell us that we have nothing to gain
by interacting
 Experimenting: Probing the unknown: Casual and
lacking in depth
Functions (Knapp, 1992, in Gamble & Gamble, 2002):
 Provides a process for uncovering integrating topics and
openings for more penetrating conversations
 Can serve as audition for a future friendship or a way to
increase the scope of a current friendship
 Provides a safe procedure for indicating who we are and
how the other person can come to know us better
 Allows us to maintain a sense of community with our fellow
human beings
 Development and analysis of
relationships (Contd.) (Gamble and Gamble, 2002)
 Intensifying: Friendship/ comfortable collegiality
 More common ground
 More sharing
 Better mutual understanding (comm. rules redefined)
 Better prediction of each other’s behavior
Functions:
 Basis for collaboration and teamwork – ‘I’ becoming ‘we’
 Alignment of comfort zones results in a more
comfortable communication climate in the workplace
leading to reduction in friction/ conflict
 Development and analysis of
relationships (Contd.) (Gamble and Gamble, 2002)
 Integrating: Unification: Fusion of ‘I’ and ‘I’ into ‘We’
Functions:
 Perception by both members as a team
 Perceived inclusion into each other’s (professional) circles
 Synchronous professional behaviors
 Bonding: Announcement of commitment to each other
e.g. mergers or contracts
 Enhanced co-dependence
 Possibility of communication rules being redefined leading to
increase in strain on relationship
Functions:
 ‘We’ is formalized indicating mutual professional
commitments – now both are tied to the relationship and
significant others know about it …
 Development and analysis of
relationships (Contd.) (Gamble and Gamble, 2002)
 Differentiating: ‘We’ breaking up into an ‘I’ and
an ‘I’
 Emphasis on how both are a team and still are very
different from each other
 Comfort zones start growing away from each other
 Comm rules redefined yet again primarily due to the
redefinition of satisfaction of either party with
existing rules
Function
 Signals uncoupling/ trouble in the relationship
 Development and analysis of
relationships (Contd.) (Gamble and Gamble, 2002)
 Circumscribing: Only ‘safe’ communication occurs
 Decrease in quality and quantity of communication
 Dissatisfaction with comm. rules redefined in the previous
stage continues but not talked about
 Acceptance by both parties that the end may be near
 Communication becomes exhausting
 Relationship is usually ‘painful’ at this stage because of a
perceived necessity to keep up pretenses
Function:
This stage is usually the tipping point. Decision to repair or
break the relationship is made at this stage depending upon
the intensity of exhaustion and pain
 Development and analysis of
relationships (Contd.) (Gamble and Gamble, 2002)
 Stagnating: Acceptance of the end
 Communication is at a standstill
 Pain and exhaustion much lesser if not completely
over
Function
 Marks the time to start looking for a new
relationship
 Spring cleaning of the decaying relationship.
Cutting losses and figuring out ways to move on.
 Development and analysis of
relationships (Gamble and Gamble, 2002)
 Avoiding: The disconnect becomes obvious to
significant others
 Unpleasantness creeps in
 Active attempts to avoid interacting with each other
 Forced interaction usually leads to aggression against each
other that is usually expressed in public as a defence
mechanism to warn each other and significant others to not
force this interaction
Function:
Active and expressed conflict. Should be avoided as far as
possible. Usually serves to create basis for termination of
relationship.
 Development and analysis of
relationships (Contd.) (Gamble and Gamble, 2002)
 Termination: End
 Pleasant/ unpleasant
 Cordial/ bitter
 Short/ long drawn
Function:
Time to wind up, close the file, archive, and move on
What constitutes human relationships?
(Schutz, 1966, in Ross & Anderson, 2002)

 FIRO (Fundamental Interpersonal Relations

Orientation) Theory
identifies the following as significant factors affecting the
formation of relationships:
 Inclusion: Remaining connected with others
 Control: Ability and desire to make a difference in
social situations; not necessarily manipulative
 Machiavellianism: Interpersonal willingness to
manipulate others for personal gain
 Affection: Interpersonal warmth and satisfying
relations
 Theoretical explanations
 Social Exchange Theory
(Blau, 1964; Homans, 1961; Thibaut & Kelley, 1959, in Ross & Anderson, 2002)

 Presumes that people communicate by trying to achieve

relational profit by producing more
 Rewards: Outcomes desired by communicators, than
 Costs: What communicators must forgo in order to achieve goals
 Depends on an expectation of Reciprocity (I scratch your
back and you scratch mine ) in maintaining relationships
 Assumes that people evaluate potential relationships for
their exchange potential by employing:
 Comparison levels: Inner standard set by the individual that indicates
an acceptable level of satisfaction in a relationship or a situation on
the basis of various forms of social judgment or past experience
 Comparison level for alternatives: Comparison of the rewards and
costs of your existing relationship with the anticipated R and C that
you would receive if you ended the relationship
 How does one
become a part
of an organization?
19
Interpersonal processes of assimilation
(Gaillard, Myers, and Seibold, 2010 in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)

 Becoming familiar and working with supervisors

 Becoming acquainted with coworkers
 Acculturating
 Being recognized
 Becoming involved
 Negotiating roles
 Developing job competency
Factors affecting organizational
socialization (Modaff and DeWine, 2002)
 Loyalty and congruency
 Loyalty is the individual’s belief that he has a
moral obligation to engage in a mode of
conduct reflecting loyalty and duty in all social
situations.
 Congruency is the degree of alignment
between the core values held by the individual
and the organization

21
Socialization Process (Modaff and DeWine, 2002)
 Collective vs. individual socialization process
 Collective socialization involves putting a group
of recruits through a common set of experiences
together.
 Individual socialization occurs when recruits are
brought into the organization in relative isolation
from one another and put through a unique set of
experiences

22
Socialization Process (Contd.)
(Modaff and DeWine, 2002)

 Formal vs. informal socialization process

 Formal socialization occurs when newcomers
are segregated, in one form or another, from
regular organizational members
 Informal socialization processes do not
segregate the newcomer in any special way or
distinguish the newcomer’s role specifically but
instead use the informal, laissez-faire
socialization for recruits

23
Socialization Process (Contd.)
(Modaff and DeWine, 2002)

 Sequential vs. random socialization

processes
 Sequential socialization is the degree to which
the organization specifies a certain set of steps to
be completed in order to advance to the target
role
 Random socialization occurs when the sequence
of steps leading to the target role is unknown,
ambiguous, or continually changing

24
Socialization Process (Contd.)
(Modaff and DeWine, 2002)

 Fixed vs. variable socialization processes:

 When an organization uses fixed socialization, it
provides the newcomer with a precise timetable
for when to expect progression to the target
role.
 Variable socialization processes provide no real
cues to the newcomer as to when to expect
movement to the target role

25
Socialization Process (Contd.)
(Modaff and DeWine, 2002)
 Serial vs. disjunctive socialization processes
 Ifan organization uses serial socialization, it
uses an experienced organizational member,
who occupies a similar role to the one the
newcomer will occupy, to help “groom” the
newcomer
 When the organization uses disjunctive
socialization processes, no role models are
available or are provided for the newcomer and
the newcomer is left alone to discover the ins
and outs of the position 26
Socialization Process (Contd.)
(Modaff and DeWine, 2002)

 Investiture vs. Divestiture Socialization

Processes
 The investiture socialization tactic affirms the
personal characteristics and identity that the
newcomer brings to the organization – “we like
you the way you are”
 Divestiture socialization, however, seeks to deny
and strip away certain personal characteristics of
a newcomer – “we love you, you are perfect, now
change”
27
Becoming familiar and working with
supervisors
 Significance of the alignment of comfort zones
of supervisors and subordinates in the
workplace
 For supervisors
 For subordinates
 For organization
Factors affecting superior-subordinate
communication
 Openness/ closedness of supervisor subordinate
communication (Redding, 1972, in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)
 Influence: Pelz Effect (Pelz, 1952, in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011):
Workers’ feelings of cooperation in work groups and or
organizational control are positively influenced by their
leader’s upward influence
 Supervisors’ communication styles and related
effectiveness
 Supervisor feedback
 Personal characteristics of supervisors and
subordinates
Becoming acquainted with coworkers
 Primarily exchange of information because:
 Coworkers can empathize better
 Less risky to admit to coworkers that one doesn’t
know something
Strategies new members use to obtain
information from their coworkers
(Miller and Jablin, 1991, in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)

 Overt: Directly asking a question

 Indirect: involving noninterrogative questions
 Third party: Seeking information from a substitute source
 Testing limits: Creating a situation to which information targets
must respond about whether the member has broken a norm
 Disguising conversations: Concealing information seeking
within another conversation
 Observation: Unobtrusively watching to gain information
 Surveillance: Using retrospective sensemaking to draw
conclusions based on observations, both past and present
Implications of becoming acquainted
with coworkers
 For new employees:
 Information
 Shaping attitudes regarding work and organization
 Ease of learning work tasks
 Formal and informal networks
 Support and friendship
 For older employees in the organization
 For the organization:
 Turnover
 Cohesion of employees
 Biases
 Personality differences and relational disengagement
Acculturation
 Involves learning about and accepting the
culture of a place/ organization
 Learning the norms of the organization and
‘how things get done’ within their respective
organizations (Myers and Oetzel, 2003 in Myers, Seibold, and Park, 2011)
 Helps members understand how we view and
value customers, the community, our
competitors, and ourselves
(Bauer et al., 1998 in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)
Factors affecting organizational
acculturation
 Coworkers’ job satisfaction is influenced by the day-to-
day discourse about topics such as how workers are
treated by supervisors, whether organizational policies
are fair, and whether compensation is deemed
adequate for the work. (O’Reilly and Caldwell, 1979, in Myers, Seibold, and Park,
2011)

 Solitary vs. teamwork in performing tasks

 Use of technology for official work
 Interactional patterns
 Intercultural attitudes regarding coworkers, superiors
and subordinates
Implications of acculturation
 For individuals
 For organizations
 Organizational
identification as value congruence between
member and organizations
(Cheney, 1983, and Tompkins and Cheney, 1985 in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)

 Articulated dissent: Proactive dissent with the objective of

rectifying the problem
(Kassing, 2000 in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)

 Gossip (Hafen, 2004 in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011):

“Healing talk that
connects intimately to one another in communication based
on community; skill-building talk, as we compare our
behaviors to others; and dis/empowering talk that evokes
feelings of dominance for gossiper and subordination for
gossippee.”
Purposes of gossip in an organization
(Hafen, 2004 in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)

 Can discretely inform newcomers about other

members of the organization which can be an
invaluable part of socialization
 Can be an indirect guide about values and
behavioral norms of the organization – if people
are gossipping about the behavior, it might be
best to avoid that behavior in future
 Learning about the gossip climate and uses of
gossip in the organization can inform members
about what is appropriate gossip behavior and
what is not
Being recognized
 Significantly determines how accepted new
employees feel in the organization, and how
well they feel they can contribute to the
organization (Self-efficacy)
Manners in which employees may be
recognized in an organization
 Informal recognition (Bullis and Back, 1989, in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)
 Positive feedback
 Credibility of supervisor
(Cusella, 1987, and O’Reilly and Anderson, 1980, in in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)

 Feedback by coworkers
(Moreland and Levine, 1982, 2001 in in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)

 Emergent leadership (Fisher, 1986, in in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)

People who emerge as leaders informally through their
interactions with the group. More to be covered in
leadership communication
Becoming involved
(Gailliard et al., 2010; Myers & Oetzel, 2003, in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)

Workers who are involved with the organization,

seek ways to contribute in the workplace, often
by volunteering to perform extra work, or to take
on added responsibility for the sake of the
organization and its members.
Factors affecting involvement of
employees with their work
 Social information processing: Talk amongst
employees: May start a chain reaction either way
(Caldwell & O’Reilly, 1982, in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)

 Challenge of various activities

 Organizational expectations communicated formally or
informally
(George & Bettenhausen, 1990, in Myers, Seibold & Park, 2011)

 Social comparison (Festinger, 1954, in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)

 Identification with organization/ Citizenship
(Meyer, 2004, in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)

 Benefits of communication networks

Communication and organizational
involvement (Myers and Sadaghiani, 2010, in Myers, Seibold & Park, 2011)
 The need for positive communication by juniors may
feel burdensome to senior members
 Lack of informal organizational communication
negatively relates to job satisfaction of new members
 Low levels of communicative support from supervisors
may have a bearing on turnover
 Communication of information on a ‘need-to-know
basis’ can be uncomfortable for new employees, and
may lead to one or both of the above.
 Empowerment needs to be communicated
appropriately and adequately
Negotiating roles
 Role: Duties one is tasked to perform and the
manner in which the individual performs them
(Katz & Kahn, 1966 in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)

 Role Negotiation: A process in which

newcomers compromise between their own
expectations and the expectations of the
organization. (Myers and Oetzel, 2003, in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)
e.g. the sudden spate of politically correct/ euphemistic
terms. You decide how you want to perceive particular
situations/ labels, and take it from there
Factors affecting role negotiation
 Newcomers’ role development and time
pressure:
 Directness
 Elaboration
 Mutual concessions
(Meiners, 2004, in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)

 Contextual issues
 Cultural and intercultural issues
 Gender issues
 Disability (Cohen and Avanzino, 2010 in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)
 Developing job competency
(Moreland and Levine, 1982, 2001 in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)

 “The communication processes involved in training

members to develop task competency, coordinate
tasks with coworkers, and serve customers, along with
the interaction that enables newcomers to hone their
skills through information seeking and feedback are
significant aspects of organizational integration.”
 Members actively evaluate and discuss the
rewardingness of other members to the group, and
this is influenced to a great deal by the job
competency of each member.
Groups and Teams
What? …
 Group: Three or more individuals who interact
over time, depend on one another, and follow
shared rules of conduct to reach a common
goal (Wood, 1998)
 Team: Special kind of group that is
characterized by different and complimentary
resources of members and by a strong sense of
collective identity (Wood, 1998)
Elements of group behavior (Lewis, 1980)
 Activity: Something a person does
 Interaction: Communication between people in
which the activity of one is in response to the
behavior of another
 Sentiment: is a thought about someone or
something
Why do people join groups? (Seiler & Beall, 2005;
Argyle, 1996, in Cathcart, Samovar & Henman, 1996)
 Satisfaction of psychological and social needs (e.g.
attention, affection, belongingness) (Seiler & Beall, 2005; Argyle, 1996, in
Cathcart, Samovar & Henman, 1996)

 Membership helps with the achievement of larger

goals due to division of labor (Seiler & Beall, 2005; Argyle, 1996, in Cathcart,
Samovar & Henman, 1996)

 Provision of multiple sources of information and

knowledge that might not be available to one
individual that can aid the above (Seiler & Beall, 2005)
 Meeting the need for security (Seiler & Beall, 2005)
 Contribution to an individual’s sense of positive social
identity (Seiler & Beall, 2005)
 Social facilitation (Argyle, 1996)
 Group characteristics (Lewis, 1980; Seiler & Beall, 2005)

 Identity: Individual & as part of the group (Lewis, 1980)

 Status & prestige: degree to which members possess
certain socially approved attributes, to the importance
of given roles, or to the exercise of influence (Lewis,
1980)
 Formality (Lewis, 1980)
 Cohesiveness/ Cohesion (Lewis, 1980; Seiler & Beall,
2005):
 Cohesiveness & productivity (Lewis, 1980)
 Cohesiveness & morale (Lewis, 1980)
 Cohesiveness & communication (Lewis, 1980)
 Interdependence (Seiler & Beall, 2005)
 Commitment (Seiler & Beall, 2005)
 Group size (Seiler & Beall, 2005)
Group characteristics (Lewis, 1980; Seiler & Beall, 2005)

 Group norms (Seiler & Beall, 2005)

 Group culture/ Diversity (Seiler & Beall, 2005; Modaff & DeWine, 2002)
 Satisfaction (Modaff & DeWine, 2002)
 Groupthink: What happens when a group tries to maintain
cohesiveness & avoid conflict (Janis, 1972, in Modaff & DeWine, 2002)
 Stress: Balance between Coordination & Compromise (Modaff &
DeWine, 2002)
 Stuckness: “Repetitive, often unconscious tensions that prevent
a group from even doing the work of problem solving on scarce
resources or compromising about conflicting needs” (Keyton, 2000,
2002, in Modaff & DeWine, 2002)

50
Individualist & Collectivist Orientations:
A comparison of small groups
(Beebe & Masterson, 2003; Mole, 1995, in Seiler and Beall, 2005)

Individualist Assumptions Collectivist Assumptions

Individuals make better decisions than The group’s decision should supersede
groups do individual decisions
Leaders and not the group members The group should do the planning
should do the planning
Individuals should be rewarded for their Reward and recognition should be
performance shared among group members
Competition among individual group Teamwork is more important than
members is good competition
The best way to get things done is to The group is the best way to accomplish
work with individuals as opposed to an goals
entire group
Groups or teams are often perceived as The commitment to the group is
a waste of time strongest when the group reaches
consensus
Group functions and roles (Burkel-Rothfuss, 1985)
 Information management: Data collection and
information exchange activities in the group.
 Problem-analysis: Examining problems critically
and systematically in the group
 Executive: Establishment and discussion of
goals, norms, and procedures in the group
 Gatekeeping: Encouraging and regulating
participation in the group
 Climate building:
 Encourager
 Negotiator
Work group typologies
(Allcorn, 1996, in Cathcart, Samovar & Henman, 1996)

 Defensive: members offer different solutions to

the same problem, causing anxiety within the
group
 Homogenized
 Institutionalized
 Autocratic

 Non-defensive: deals with group participation in

a non-defensive way: Intentional group
 Cultures of workplace groups
(Allcorn, 1996, in Cathcart, Samovar & Henman, 1996)
Homogenized Institutionalized Autocratic Group Intentional Group
Group Group
All members have Members assigned All members Roles & status are
equal status with no specific roles & assigned roles & assumed by
clear individual roles status & given status but no clear members based on
guidelines for guidelines for need of group &
changing them change leader
No leader is Leadership Leader is Leadership emerges
acknowledged/ designated by omnipotent and in or is passed on
permitted group’s operating complete control of based on needs of
structure group group & members
Autonomous Autonomous Autonomous Autonomous
behavior is attacked/ behavior controlled behavior rewarded/ behavior valued if it
not supported by by procedures punished as per contributes to
members leader’s whims group’s purpose
Members are unable Direction of group Leader directs the Members
to find a direction for limited by group collectively decide a
the group organizational direction for group
structure
 Cultures of workplace groups
(Allcorn, 1996, in Cathcart, Samovar & Henman, 1996)
Homogenized Institutionalized Autocratic Intentional
Group acts as Group acts as though Group acts as though Group acts as
though time & organization were in leader will take care though all
environment had control of events & of everything if s/he is members were
been temporarily process & as if work permitted to do so responsible for
suspended has to be accomplished group’s work &
as planned leadership
Some members Some members may Some members may Contributions
may be singled be singled out & be singled out for acknowledged by
out & stigmatized praised for participation rewards for the group as a
for their as expected or publicly supportive actions/ whole
expression & punished for deviating punished for deviation
finally discarded acc. to leader’s whims
Little work on the Work on the group’s Work on the group Work on the
group task is task is accomplished task is accomplished group’s task is
accomplished & as per organizational as per leader’s accomplished with
no plans are work process instructions all members (incl.
made leader) assuming
equal responsibility
Membership experience in workplace groups
(Allcorn, 1996, in Cathcart, Samovar & Henman, 1996)
Homogenized Institutionalized Autocratic Intentional
Members fear Members fear Members fear Members are eager
consequences of consequences of consequences of to offer their point of
speaking out and speaking out in other speaking out/ taking view
taking action than prescribed manner/ action without explicit
taking action without approval of leader
prior approval
Members feel Members feel helpless Members feel helpless Members feel safe
helpless because because they are because of leader’s because everyone
they are attacked attacked when they inflexible attitude is on equal footing
when they speak deviate
Security in being Safety in following rules Unsafe and insecure Safe and secure
unnoticed because of leader’s because of equality
unpredictability
Members feel Members feel they have Individuals feel a loss Members feel a
group has lost its lost their purpose in of personal purpose to continued sense of
purpose trying to follow rules boss’s whims purpose
Frustration: No Frustration because of Frustration because of Frustrations openly
direction of group rigid insti. processes inflexibility of leader discussed & solved
 An effective group is one that achieves
high levels of task performance, member
satisfaction, and team viability
(Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008)
When groups are effective, they help
organizations accomplish important tasks. In
particular, they offer the potential for synergy –
the creation of a whole that is greater than the
sum of its parts. (Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008)
Social facilitation: The tendency for one’s
behavior to be influenced by the presence
of others in a group or social setting
(Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008)
Group structure: Stages of group
development (Lewis, 1980)
 Stage 1: Testing and dependence: Discovery of
interpersonal behaviors that are acceptable to the
group. Establishment of norms.
 Stage 2: Intragroup conflict: Fitting stage. Hostility of
members as the achieve balance between expressing
individuality and fitting in the group.
 Stage 3: Development of group cohesion: Bonding.
Acceptance of each other
 Stage 4: Functional role-relatedness: Task and role
assignment and expression leading to solutions
 Stages of Group Development
(Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008)

Adjourning Forming
Disbanding and celebrating Getting to know each other
accomplishments

Performing Storming
Maturing in relationships Dealing with tensions
and task performance and defining group tasks

Norming
Building relationships and working together
Factors influencing group effectiveness
(Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008)

• Diversity consensus dilemma: The tendency for the existence of

diversity among group members to make it harder for them to work
together, even though the diversity itself expands the skills and
perspectives available for problem solving
• Status congruence: Occurs when a person’s position within the
group is equivalent in status to positions the individual holds
outside the group.
• FIRO-B (Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation) Theory:
Groups whose members have compatible needs are likely to be
more effective than groups whose members are more
incompatible.
• Group Size: As a group becomes larger, more and more people
are available to divide up the work and accomplish needed tasks
• Group Dynamics: Activities, interactions and sentiments
 Group Conformity
 Why do groups exert pressure?
 Group locomotion hypothesis: Groups have goals
and typically attempt to function in ways designed
to allow them to achieve these goals. (Festinger,1950, in
Cathcart, Samovar & Henman, 1996)
 Socialcomparison theory: Most people do not
need to consult the views of others to validate their
perceptions of physical reality, but social
perceptions (comparisons, adjectives) are socially
constructed. (Festinger ,1954, in Cathcart, Samovar & Henman, 1996)
 Balance Theories: Why disturb the status quo?
(Heider,1946, Osgood & Tannenbaum,1955, in Cathcart, Samovar & Henman, 1996)
 Group Conformity (Contd.)
Why do individuals conform to group pressure?
 Group locomotion hypothesis: Fulfilment of individual
goals through organizational goals (Festinger,1950, in Cathcart, Samovar
& Henman, 1996)
 Balance theories: Maintenance of personal equilibrium
through organizational balance (Heider,1946, Osgood &
Tannenbaum,1955, in Cathcart, Samovar & Henman, 1996)
 Social exchange view: Symbiotic relationship with the
organization (Homans,1958, in Cathcart, Samovar & Henman, 1996)
 Social judgment theory: Doesn’t affect me either way,
might as well go along with it. (Sherif, Sherif & Nebergall,1965; Snyder,
1974; Snyder & Monson, 1975, in Cathcart, Samovar & Henman, 1996)
 Deviance discomfort (Lewis, 1980)
 Enforcement (Lewis, 1980)
 Internalization (Lewis, 1980)
Relational communication in groups
(Modaff & DeWine, 2002)

 Formation of social relationships in groups is

inevitable: More in personal than professional groups
 Relationships enhance engagement within and
commitment to the group
 Relationships serve as sources of support
 Relationships serve as practice grounds for various
functional roles within and outside a group
 Relationships serve as a support system that
facilitates experimentation of new ideas in-house
Dysfunctional groups (Modaff & DeWine, 2002)
 Dysfunctional behavior (Keyton, 1999 in Modaff & DeWine, 2002):
 Inconsistentbehavior
 Primary provoker: Person who engages in such
behavior
 Secondary provoker: Person who supports primary
provoker
Impact of dysfunctional relationships on
group dynamics & performance
(Keyton, 1999, in Modaff & DeWine, 2002)

 Compromising the decision-making procedures to

avoid conflict
 Defining issues according to the poor relationship or
weak member
 Consuming a great deal of energy trying to resolve
issues relative to the primary provoker
 Exhibiting confusing behaviors in response to this
conflict
 Being consumed with mending the relationships
 Displaying negative emotions toward the group as a
whole
Problems with Groups
(Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008)

 Social Loafing or Ringleman Effect :

Tendency of people to work less hard in a
group than they would individually

Reasons:
 Their individual contributions are less
noticeable in a group
 They prefer to see others carry the workload
Dealing with social loafing
(Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008)

 Define roles and tasks to maximize

individual interests
 Raise accountability by making
performance expectations clear and
identifiable
 Tie individual rewards to their performance
contributions to the group
Team (Seiler & Beall, 2005)
A special form of group, characterized by
close-knit relationships among people with
different and complementary abilities and
by a strong sense of identity

70
Differences between groups and teams
(Seiler & Beall, 2002)

 Diversity of abilities and skill

 Interdependence
 Group identity
 Types of teams
 Based on what teams do (Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008)
 Teams that recommend things
 Teams that run things: Homogenous & cross
functional
 Teams that make or do things
 Teams that fix and maintain things
 Employee involvement teams
 Quality circles

 Self-managing teams

72
 Types of teams (Contd.)
 Based on how much they do (Sieler & Beall, 2005)
 Projectteam: task based – one aspect of a
procedure
 Work team: entire work process

 Based on Location
 Real time
 Virtual
The nature of teamwork
(Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008)

 Collective accountability
 Willingness of every member to listen and
respond constructively to views expressed by
others, give others the benefit of the doubt,
provide support, and recognize the interests
and achievements of others.

74
Team building (Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008)
Collaborative way to gather and analyze
data to improve teamwork

Sequence of planned activities designed

to gather and analyze data on the
functioning of a group and to initiate
changes designed to improve teamwork
and increase group effectiveness.
75
How team building works
(Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008)

Step 1:
Problem or opportunity
in team effectiveness

Teamwork Step 2:
Step 5: Participation Data gathering
Evaluation of results by all members and analysis

Step 4: Step 3:
Actions to improve Planning for
team functioning team improvements

76
Norms of team behavior

 Norms of a group or team represent ideas

or beliefs about how members are
expected to behave (Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008)
 Recurring patterns of behavior based on
implicit and explicit rules that develop and
change as the group interacts (Burkel-Rothfuss, 1985)
 Standards of conduct

77
Significance of norms
(Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008)

 Clarify expectations associated with a

person’s membership in the group/ team
 Help members structure their own
behavior and predict what others will do
 Help members gain a common sense of
direction
 Reinforce a desired group or team culture

78
Types of Norms (Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008)
 Ethics norms
 Organizational and personal pride norms
 High achievement norms
 Support and helpfulness norms
 Improvement and change norms

79
 Norms that foster competent group
interaction (Burkel-Rothfuss, 1985)
Norms Communication Relevant Basic comm
Behaviors Roles competency
category
Attending Attending to/ commenting Manager Controlling
to on the group’s method &
process comm
Accepting Owning feelings; Encourager Expressing
feelings acknowledging others’ Negotiator
feelings
Adapting Checking perceptions; Negotiator Symbolizing,
to seeking feedback Info Processing,
feedback manager Adapting
 Norms that foster competent group
interaction (Contd.) (Burkel-Rothfuss, 1985)
Norms Communication Relevant Basic comm
Behaviors Roles competency
category
Objectively Coordinating information; Analyst Symbolizing
diagnosing systematically analyzing Negotiator Processing
problems problems Controlling
Sharing Verbally and nonverbally Gatekeeper Symbolizing
responsibility participating; Encourager Processing
acknowledging Adapting
responsibility for the
group Controlling
Expressing
 Role and Role Dynamics
(Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008)

 Role ambiguity occurs when a person is

uncertain about his or her role
 Role overload occurs when too much is
expected, and the individual feels
overwhelmed with work
 Role underload occurs when too little is
expected
 Role conflict occurs when a person is unable
to meet the expectations of others 82
Forms of Role Conflict
(Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008)
 Intra-sender role conflict occurs when the same
person sends conflicting expectations
 Inter-sender role conflict occurs when different
people signal conflicting and mutually exclusive
expectations
 Person-role conflict occurs when one’s personal
values and needs come into conflict with role
expectations
 Inter-role conflict occurs when the expectations of
two or more roles held by the same individual
become incompatible, such as the conflict between
83
work and family demands
Specific concerns for global teams
 Culture
 Geographic diversity
 Language
 Technology
Challenges posed by demographic fault-lines
on team performance (Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008)
 Strong fault-line group: Members identify more with
subgroups than team
 More conflict
 Less sense of safety
 Less team satisfaction

 Weak fault-line group: Members identify more with

team than subgroups:
 Lessconflict
 More sense of safety
 More team satisfaction
85
Characteristics of high-performance
teams (Larson & LaFasto, 1989, in Modaff & DeWine, 2002)
 Clear, elevating goals
 Results driven structure
 Competent team members
 Unified commitment
 Collaborative climate
 Standards of excellent
 External support and recognition
 Principled leadership
 Norms that foster competent group
interaction (Burkel-Rothfuss, 1985)
Norms Communication Relevant Basic comm
Behaviors Roles competency
category
Attending Attending to/ commenting Manager Controlling
to on the group’s method &
process comm
Accepting Owning feelings; Encourager Expressing
feelings acknowledging others’ Negotiator
feelings
Adapting Checking perceptions; Negotiator Symbolizing,
to seeking feedback Info Processing,
feedback manager Adapting
 Norms that foster competent group
interaction (Contd.) (Burkel-Rothfuss, 1985)
Norms Communication Relevant Basic comm
Behaviors Roles competency
category
Objectively Coordinating information; Analyst Symbolizing
diagnosing systematically analyzing Negotiator Processing
problems problems Controlling
Sharing Verbally and nonverbally Gatekeeper Symbolizing
responsibility participating; Encourager Processing
acknowledging Adapting
responsibility for the
group Controlling
Expressing
Roles and relationships within teams
(Source: Gamble, T. K. & Gamble, M. (2002). Communication works (7th Ed.). NY:
McGraw Hill. 346-347.)
A
A B A
A B
B E B
B C
A E B
CA D
D
E D All C
E E
E Y Pattern D C Channel
Chain/ Wheel/ Star Circle
Line Isolate
Liaison
Isolate

Bridge Clique

Clique Bridge
 Communication networks explained
(Gamble and Gamble, 2002)

 Clique: majority of their contacts with each other

 Liaisons: not a member of any one group or clique but link
persons in one group with persons in another group.
 Feel more strongly integrated in the group
 More team oriented
 Less frustrated with group’s work
 Bridges: persons in groups who have a predominant number of
intragroup contacts and who also communicate with one or
more persons in another group or clique.
Feeling of membership similar to liaisons
 Isolates: persons who have little, if any, contact with others,
 do not feel well integrated into the life of the group,
 fail to contribute to group functions,
 less secure in their life concepts
 more likely to experience dissatisfaction
 Minimizing power differences
(Fiarhurst, 1993, in Modaff & DeWine, 2002)

 Value congruence
 Non routine problem solving
 Inside markers
 Support
 Coaching
 Maximizing power differences
(Fairhurst, 1993, in Modaff & DeWine, 2002)

 Performance monitoring
 Face threatening acts: Criticisms and rebuke
 Competitive conflict: Interruptions and non
supportive statements
 Power games
 Problems in
professional relationships
 Role and role dynamics
(Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008)

 Role ambiguity occurs when a person is

uncertain about his or her role
 Role overload occurs when too much is
expected, and the individual feels
overwhelmed with work
 Role underload occurs when too little is
expected
 Role conflict occurs when a person is unable
to meet the expectations of others 94
Forms of Role Conflict
(Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008)
 Intra-sender role conflict occurs when the same
person sends conflicting expectations
 Inter-sender role conflict occurs when different
people signal conflicting and mutually exclusive
expectations
 Person-role conflict occurs when one’s personal
values and needs come into conflict with role
expectations
 Inter-role conflict occurs when the expectations of
two or more roles held by the same individual
become incompatible, such as the conflict between
95
work and family demands
 Strains caused by work
(Modaff & DeWine, 2002)

 Management of information: What and how

much should be shared with who and when
 Perceived need for consensus: What should
be agreed upon while communicating with
who, and when and why
 Acceptance: Who should one feel the need to
be accepted by, and when, and why
 Public display of friendships/ relationships:
Who should know about which friendship and
when, and why
Strains caused by friendship at work
(Modaff & DeWine, 2002)

 Objectivity: Loyalty towards friends vis-à-vis

organization/ team/ department
 Work related inequality vs. egalitarianism
between friends
 Performance at work vs. socialization at
work
 Managing official information
Negative consequences of work
relationships
Misuse of support: (Eileen Berlin-Ray, 1993, in Modaff & DeWine, 2002)
 Support as a commodity – strings attached for
future reference
 Information retrieval through one way
communication
 Co-dependency can result in barriers to growth or
change
 Threat to personal interests – sharing information
because one feels obligated to do it even if it is not
in one’s interest
What co-workers say to encourage peers to
leave voluntarily (Cox, 1998, in Modaff & Dewine, 2002)
 Negatively criticize a peer
 Encourage the peer to consider a new job or career
 Negatively criticize the peer’s job, company, or management
 Praise other jobs or careers
 Encourage self-evaluation
 Inform the peer of other job opportunities
 Warn the peer of negative consequences or outcomes
 Review beliefs about work and life
 Tell/ encourage peer to exit; praise the choice of voluntary
exit
 Resignation
 Praise peer’s positive qualities
 Strengthening work relationships
(Modaff & DeWine, 2002)

 Provide positive feedback

 Mediate conflict
 Discuss communication:
Metacommunication – communicating about communication
 Help manage relationships (DeWine, 1994, in Modaff & DeWine, 2002)
 Closest friends outside of work
 No intimate friendships/ relationships at work
 Understand difference in perceptions regarding
man-woman friendships at work
Criteria for healthy work relationships
(Kanter, 1997, in Modaff & DeWine, 2002)

 Individual excellence
 Importance for organization
 Interdependence
 Investment
 Information
 Integration
 Institutionalization
 Integrity
Characteristics of high-performance
teams (Larson & LaFasto, 1989, in Modaff & DeWine, 2002)
 Clear, elevating goals
 Results driven structure
 Competent team members
 Unified commitment
 Collaborative climate
 Standards of excellent
 External support and recognition
 Principled leadership
Global Teams: The ultimate
collaboration (Solomon, 1995)
Phase I: Recognition of differences in value
systems as norms specific to different
cultures and not societal norms
Phase II: Respect for intercultural differences
within the team
Phase III: Trust within the team and sharing of
knowledge
Phase IV: Collaboration or working together as
one unit 103
Tips for global team building (Solomon, 1995)

 Have a good reason for forming a team

 Create a common, shared goal
 Promote interdependency – Each person
should know what they are expected to
contribute
 Have measurable outcomes
 Talk about intercultural differences and allow
people to have some fun with them
104
Tips for global team building (Solomon, 1995, contd.)

 Realize that people need to understand

differences before coming together effectively
 Continually stress the team’s purpose and its
measurable outcomes
 Make sure the team members have the right
skills
 Provide training wherever necessary
 Provide detailed agendas for meetings
 Spell out lines of communication
105
Thank You

106