SOLDERING AND WELDING

Presented by
DR . GV. AJITH
First Year Pg

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 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
CLASSIFICATION
DEFINITIONS
SOLDERING
History
Soldering Procedure
Technical Procedure for Soldering
Technical considerations while soldering
Different Techniques
Safety Considerations
Orthodontic Soldering
Applications
Soldering Failures

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 CONTENTS
WELDING
Types of Welding
Orthodontic Welder
Principle
Variables and their Applications
Procedure
Weld Decay
Clinical Applications
For Successful Welding
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES

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 INTRODUCTION

 The process of joining of similar or dissimilar metals by the

application of heat is called metal joining operation.
 There is probably no industry, which is not using these, process
in the fabrication of its products in some forms or other.
 In dentistry these process are commonly used to join cast
pontics and abutments in crown and bridge work and to join
various components in fixed or removable orthodontic
appliances.

Humpston, G. and111Jacobson, D.M. eds., 2004. Principles of soldering. ASM 4

 CLASSIFICATION
 Metal joining operations are usually divided into

BRAZING

SOLDERIN
G

WELDING

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Sciences
 METAL JOINING TERMINOLOGIES

• The temperature at which metals of an alloy system

LIQUIDUS begin to solidify on cooling or become totally liquid
TEMPERATU
on cooling.
RE

• The temperature at which metals of an alloy system

SOLIDUS become completely solidified on cooling or start to
TEMPERATU
melt on heating.
RE

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 • Joining of metals by the fusion of filler metal
between them, at a temperature below the solidus
SOLDERI
temperature of metals being joined and below
NG
450°C(840°F)
• Joining of metals by the fusion of a filler metal
between them, at a temperature below the solidus

BRAZING temperature of metals being joined and above

450°C.

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Sciences
 The joining of two or more metal parts by applying
heat, pressure or both, with or without a filler metal,
to produce localized union across the interface
WELDING through fusion or diffusion.

Process of combining two components of a fixed

partial denture by means of casting molten metal
into interlocking region between invested
CAST components. This is preferred for base metal alloys
JOINING because of technique sensitivity of brazing or
soldering these alloys.

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 SOLDERING
HISTORY:
 The word -> the Old French word, Soudure, which means to Fasten
together.

 The practice of using gold crowns and bridgework as dental

restoration apparently flourished in Etruria and Rome as early as 700
to 500 B.C. Soldering was used for Joining lead strips in stained glass
window, with the oldest dated from the 11th century.

 From 1700 onwards it is clear that soldering was well established with
the appearance of “Tinsmiths” and “White-iron men” as trade.

Humpston, G. and111Jacobson, D.M. eds., 2004. Principles of soldering. ASM international. 9

Humpston, G. and111Jacobson, D.M. eds., 2004. Principles of soldering. ASM international. 10
 In 1708, Newcomen’s discovery attributed to faulty repair by soldering,
of a blow hole in a bronze cylinder of steam engine.

 Later, discovered that when the vapor from heated alcohol was ignited
over a burning wick, it burnt with a very concentrated flame of high
temperature very suitable for different heating purposes.

 Many different designs emerged using this technique and were

generally called blow pipes. The first known patent is from France and
is dated January 7, 1791.

Humpston, G. and111Jacobson, D.M. eds., 2004. Principles of soldering. ASM 11

2

 During the early 1900`s, a great variety of blow lamps specially

designed for different purpose and applications came on the
market.

 After the Second World War, the propane gas emerged as a

cleaner and safer fuel for different heating purposes.

Humpston, G. and111Jacobson, D.M. eds., 2004. Principles of soldering. ASM 12

SOLDERING PROCEDURE:
The soldering process involves mainly

1. The “Substrate” or the “Parent” metal

2. Soldering filler metal (Solder)

3. Flux

4. Heat source

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1.“SUBSTRATE” OR THE “PARENT” METAL:

 The substrate metal or the basis metal is the original pure

metal/alloy that is prepared for joining to another substrate
metal or alloy.

 Gold based alloys-first used substrate metals.

 Metal compositions now range from Au-cu, Au-Ag, Au-pa, Ag-

pa, Ni-cr.

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 Soldering operations are the same for any substrate metal but
the ease of soldering varies

 The composition of the substrate metal determines the

1. Melting range

2. Oxide that forms on the surface during heating

3. Wettability of the substrate by the molten solder.

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 Soldering should take place below the solidus temperature of
the parent metal.

 A low temp soldering is preferred rather than the high temp

soldering for Stainless steel wire to prevent carbide precipitation
and to prevent an excessive softening of the wire.

 Silver solders are generally preferred.

Anusavice, K.J., Shen, C. and Rawls, H.R., 2013. Phillips' science of dental materials. Elsevier Health
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Sciences
2.FILLER METAL/DENTAL SOLDER:
 Soldering filler metal
compositions are as diverse
as the composition of
substrate metals

 Dental gold solders are given

a fineness designation to
indicate the proportion of
pure gold contained in 1000
parts of alloy.

 The solder must be

compatible with the oxide
free substrate metal

Anusavice, K.J., Shen, C. and Rawls, H.R., 2013. Phillips' science of dental materials. Elsevier Health
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IDEAL REQUIREMENTS/COMPATIBILITY:
1.Flow Temperature
The temperature at which the filler metal wets and flows
on the parent metal and produces a bond.

i. Flow temperature of the solder metal is usually higher than the

liquidus temperature.

ii. It varies depending on the combination of the substrate metal, flux

and ambient atmosphere

iii. Rule of thumb-flow temperature of the filler metal should be

56°C (100°F) lower than the solidus temperature of the parent
metal

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2. Wetting
When melted the solder material should be wet
and flow freely over the parent metal.

 Adhesion: When two unlike molecules are brought in contact

with each other, the molecules of one substance adhere or are
attracted to the molecules of another

 Cohesion: Like Molecules

 Material or film added to produce the adhesion is known as the

adhesive and the material to which it is applied is called the
adherent

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 To produce a proper adhesion, the liquid must flow easily over
the entire surface and adhere to the solid, which is referred to as
WETTING.

Factors influencing wetting are

1. Cleanliness of the surface.

2. Thickness of the adhesive.

3. Presence of an oxide film on the surface of the metal.

4. Depends also upon the property of the alloy.

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Contact angle

 Extent to which adhesive wets the

adherend

A. If the angle is zero, then forces of

adhesion stronger.

B. Smaller the contact angle between

the adhesive and the adherend, better
is the wetting properties

C. If the angle increases due to some

contamination, then the adhesive
force decreases.

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 Pure silver if melted on
Nickel based alloys, it
stands up as a ball.

 When melted on gold or

palladium-silver alloys, it
spreads out over the
surface

Spreading of molten metal doesn’t occur, if an oxide layer is

present on the substrate metal

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3. Sufficient fluidity at flow temperature

4. The color of the dental solder should match that of metal

being joined.

5. It should resist pitting during heating and application.

6. Dental solders should be resistant to tarnish and

corrosion.

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CLASSIFICATION OF DENTAL SOLDERS
 Solders may be divided into two major groups

Based on the
• Soft Solders
melting • Hard Solders
temperature

• Precious Metal
Based on the Solders
contents • Non Precious
Metal Solders

Anusavice, K.J., Shen, C. and Rawls, H.R., 2013. Phillips'

science of dental materials. Elsevier Health Sciences
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SOFT SOLDERS

• Have a low melting point of 260°C.

• Can be applied by simple means like hot soldering iron.

• They lack corrosion resistance

• Hence not suitable for dental use

Eg: lead-tin solders

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HARD SOLDERS

• High melting temperature and have greater strength and

hardness

• Melted with the help of gas blow torches, liquid blow

torches(hydro solder) or occasionally in an electric
furnace.

• Hard solders are commonly used in dentistry .

Eg: Gold solders and Silver solders

Anusavice, K.J., Shen, C. and Rawls, H.R., 2013. Phillips'

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science of dental materials. Elsevier Health Sciences
APPLICATION OF THE SOLDERS

1. For soldering various types of wires in orthodontics.

2. In fixed prosthodontics for

-joining various components of FPD

-For repair of perforations in crowns and bridges.

-to develop contact points in crowns

3. Soldering of clasps

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111 K.J., Shen, C. and Rawls, H.R., 2013. Phillips' science of 27
COMPOSITION OF SOLDERS
Gold Solders
 The composition of gold solders vary depending on their
fineness.
 Has good tarnish and corrosion resistance
 Extensively used for crown and bridge applications.
 They are high fusing with a fusion temperature range of
750- 900° C.
GOLD 45-80%
SILVER 8-30%
COPPER 7-20%
TIN 2-4%
ZINC 2-4%

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Composition of solders

Silver Solders
 Commonly used in orthodontics.

 Used when a low fusing solder is required for soldering

operations on stainless steel or other metal alloys

 They are low fusing –fusion temp-600-750°C

SILVER 10-80%

COPPER 15-50%

ZINC 4-35%

CADMIUM& Trace Amounts

PHOSPHOROUS

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 Used with stainless steel or other base metal alloys

 Resistance to tarnish and corrosion is not as good as gold solders

 But have strength comparable to gold solders

 Silver solders are generally preferred in orthodontics as they

minimize the carbide precipitation and excessive softening of
the wire.
 Because of their low fusion temp, the resistance to corrosion is
decreased and hence are more prone to it.

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PROPERTIES OF DENTAL SOLDERS
1.Fusion temperature
Fusion temperature of the solder should be at least 50° C
lower

than the parent metal.

Gold solders: 690 to 870°C

Silver solders: 620 to 700°C

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2.Flow
A good flow and wetting of the parent metal is essential to
produce a good bond.
Factors affecting flow:
Melting range : Solders with short melting range has better flow.
Composition of the parent metal : Gold and silver based alloys has
better flow
Oxides : Presence reduces the flow
Surface tension of the solder

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3.Color
 The color of gold solders varies from deep yellow to light yellow
to white.

 Most dental solders are able to produce an inconspicuous joint .

4.Tarnish & corrosion resistance

 More the gold content, better the tarnish resistance

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ADVANTAGES OF SOLDERS

 Solders are easy to use and relatively inexpensive.

 Low energy is required to solder.

 Properly soldered joints are highly reliable.

 Solder joints are easy to rework or repair.

 Experienced individuals can exercise a high degree of control over the

soldering process.

 Solder joints age very well. They can last for years, decades and
centuries.

O'Brien, W.J. ed., 2002.111Dental materials and their selection. Quintessence Publishing 34
3.SOLDERING FLUX:
 Latin word flux means “flow”.

 Purpose of flux is to remove any

oxide coating on the substrate metal
surface when the filler metal is fluid
and ready to flow into place.
 It is a low fusing material used before
& during soldering. Used by painting
it on parent metal junction.

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SELECTION OF FLUX
Selecting the correct flux is as critical as any other step of

soldering process.

The best flux is

 They remove all the residue that has formed on the surface of the
metals that is going to be soldered.

 They prevent oxides from forming while soldering.

 Any post-soldering residue they leave is non corrosive and easily

cleaned off.

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TYPES OF FLUXES
1.According to their primary purpose
Surface protection type: They cover the metal surface
and
prevents access to oxygen so that no oxides can form.
Reducing agent type: Reduces any oxides present and
exposes clean metal.
Solvent type: Acts by dissolving the oxides and carries
them away.

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2.According to their composition
Borax fluxes
Fluoride fluxes
3. According to the pH of the flux
Acidic fluxes – SiO2
Basic fluxes – CaO, lime CaCO3 LIMESTONE
Neutral fluxes– Fluorspar (Ca.F2),Borax (Na2B4O2)

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BORAX FLUXES

 In Persian word burah

 Also called sodium borate/
sodium tetraborate/disodium
tetraborate.
 They are based on boric or
borate compounds such as
boric acid/boric anhydrate and
borax.
 It is usually a white powder
consisting of soft colorless Available in
crystals that dissolve easily in Liquid
water.
form,
Paste form,
Powder
form.

O'Brien, W.J. ed., 2002.

111 Dental materials and their selection. Quintessence Publishing 39
FLUORIDE FLUXES

Composition:-
Potassium fluoride – 50-60%
Boric acid – 25-35%
Borax glass – 6-8%
Potassium carbonate – 8-10%
 The fluoride flux is used with
alloys containing base metals
even if a gold/silver solder is
used.
 Some fluoride containing fluxes
involve toxic fluorides when
heated, so inhalation of fumes
should be avoided.

O'Brien, W.J. ed., 2002. Dental materials and their selection. Quintessence Publishing
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SUPER FLUX
 A combination of high melting salts is used as fluxes to combine the
good characteristics of each ingredient and create superior flux.

 A formula for efficient flux is

Borax glass – 55 parts
Boric acid – 35 parts
Silica – 10 parts

 They act as protective fluxes (Type I) by forming low temperature

glass.
 They are also reducing fluxes (Type II) for low stability oxides like
copper oxide.

O'Brien, W.J. ed., 2002.

111 Dental materials and their selection. Quintessence Publishing 41
FORMS OF FLUXES
1.Liquid flux:
 Is the most widely used.

 It may or may not be water soluble.

 Water soluble fluxes clean up very easily, but are thinner and
some have a tendency to evaporate quickly and require repeat
applications.
 Some liquid fluxes are thinner than others and have a tendency
to run or spread out from their point of application.

O'Brien, W.J. ed., 2002.

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2.Gel flux:
 Generally water soluble

 Adheres well to the surface being soldered.

 Gels tend not to evaporate as readily as liquid flux.

 Excessive application may produce more "spitting" and

"popping" as the soldering takes place

O'Brien, W.J. ed., 2002.

111 Dental materials and their selection. Quintessence Publishing 43
FORMS OF FLUXES

3.Paste flux:
 Paste Flux is very thick and stays where it’s applied.

 Does not evaporate easily.

 It's effective when soldering 3-D forms such as lamps.

 Paste fluxes can be difficult to clean.

 Care should be taken not to over apply as it will also spit and pop
leaving pits on solder.

O'Brien, W.J. ed., 2002.

111 Dental materials and their selection. Quintessence Publishing 44
 PREFLUXED SOLDER

A type of solder where in the filler metal is in a

tube form and flux is contained inside the tube

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CARE TO BE TAKEN WHEN USING THE FLUX
 Minimize the amount of flux, Excessive flux results in weakened joint.
 It is important to keep the flux clean and free of impurities to ensure
the purest possible solder joint.
 Avoid dipping in and out from the original container. Always dispose
the required amounts in a separate smaller container-this would
ensure the flux to remain clean.
 Never pour left over flux back into the original container.
 Care should be taken to keep the flux bottle covered after use.
 Fluxes cause fumes during soldering and hence proper precautions
should be taken.

Sakaguchi, R.L. and Powers,111J.M., 2012. Craig's restorative dental materials-e-book. Elsevier Health 46
APPLICATION OF FLUX

 Flux can be applied using bristle brushes by coating it on the

substrate metal at the junction of the pieces to be joined or it

may be fused on to the surface of the filler metal strip.

 Excessive flux if present should be removed from the areas

adjacent to the joint

Sakaguchi, R.L. and Powers,111J.M., 2012. Craig's restorative dental materials-e-book. Elsevier Health 47
ANTIFLUX
 Used to limit the flow of the solder.

 When metal surfaces are clean, any excess solder introduced

into the work gap will tend to flow into unwanted areas, which is
prevented by anti flux.

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Graphite is often used as an antiflux.

Disadvantage: At higher temperature the

carbon easily evaporates leaving the work
place unprotected.

Iron oxide (Rouge) is a more reliable antiflux

which in a solvent like turpentine can be
painted on the surface with a bristle brush

Whiting (Calcium carbonate) in an alcohol

and water suspension

Sakaguchi, R.L. and Powers, J.M., 2012. Craig's restorative dental materials-e-book. Elsevier Health
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SOLDERING INVESTMENT
 Investments used in soldering are similar in composition as
casting investment.
 Mainly Gypsum and phosphate bonded investments mixed with
water are used.
 The type of silica material used in the investment would
determine its thermal expansion.
 Unwanted thermal expansion would separate the units to be
joined causing an increase in the gap space.

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4.HEAT SOURCE:

 Important part of soldering process.

 Commonly used for the application of heat is a GAS- AIR or

GAS-OXYGEN torch

 Type of torch is chosen according to the fuel being used

 Different fuels used mainly include:

1.Hydrogen
2.Natural Gas
3.Propane
4.Acetylene

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FLAME TEMPERATURE
 Alloy cannot be melted if its melting point is higher than the
flame temperature.
 The flame must provide enough heat to raise the temperature of
both the substrate metal and filler metal to the soldering temp
 Considerable amount of heat from the flame is also lost to the
surroundings.
 The heat comes from the combustion of the fuel and the heat
content is measured in calories per cubic meter of the fuel

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  Lower the heat content of the fuel, the more cubic feet of fuel
must be burned to provide the required total heat.

 Lower heat content requires longer period of heating to the

desired temperature and hence more danger of oxidation
during the soldering process.
Fuel (with Flame temperature Heat content
oxygen) °C °F
Hydrogen 2660 4820 275
Natural gas 2680 4855 1000
Propane 2850 5160 2385
Acetylene 3140 5685 1448

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1.HYDROGEN
o Low heat content- hence heating would be slow.

o Loss of heat - to the air, to the soldering investment and to other

parts of the casting will be equal to the heat generated by the
flame.

o Using this hydrogen as a fuel it may be impossible to raise the

temperature of the metal required for soldering.

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2.NATURAL GAS
o Heat content bout 4 times that of hydrogen gas and can be
expected to raise the temp of the soldered joint 4 times as fast.

o Drawback: The gas available is non uniform in composition and

is mixed with water vapour.

o This water vapour cools the flame and uses some of the heat
content of the gas.

o Hence not preferred by some technicians.

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3.ACETYLENE
o Has the highest flame temp and heat content compared with
both hydrogen and natural gas.
o The variation in temp from one part of the flame to another
maybe more than a 100°C-hence positioning of the flame is
critical.
o Chemically unstable gas-decomposes to carbon and hydrogen
o Carbon gets incorporated with Ni-Pa alloys and hydrogen to
palladium based alloys.
o Improper adjustment of the flame may extinguish the torch with
a release of carbon from the torch tip.
o Extensive experience required while handling with this gas

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4.PROPANE

o Best choice of fuel

o Good flame temperature and heat content is the highest among

the available gases.

o Butane like propane has similar features.

o Both are relatively pure compounds and hence they are uniform
in quality and are water free and burn clean

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FLAME

Flame is divided into 4 zones

1. Cold mixing zone (unburned

gas).

2. Partial combustion zone

(oxidizing).

3. Reducing zone.

4. Oxidizing zone (burned gas)

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 Portion of the flame should be neutral or slightly reducing as it
produces the most efficient burning process and most heat.

 A needle like non luminous, gas-flame should be used.

 The thinner the diameter off the flame the lesser the metal
surrounding the joint is annealed.

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 Improperly adjusted torch or improperly positioned flame - lead
to oxidation of the substrate or the filler metal and result in a
poorly soldered joint.

 If “unburned gas” portion of the flame is used, it may introduce

carbon into the substrate and filler metal

 To prevent oxide formation, flame should not be removed from

the joint till the soldering process is complete.

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TECHNICAL PROCEDURES
 Soldering requires great amount of operator skill.

 Cleaning and preparing the surfaces to be joined.

 Assembling the parts to be joined in the correct or desired position.

 Preparation and fluxing of the gap surfaces between the parts

 Maintaining the proper position of the parts during the procedure.

 Control of the proper temperature.

 Control of time to ensure adequate flow of the solder and complete

filling of the solder joint

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 GAP
TECHNIQUE CONSIDERATIONS FOR SOLDERING
• Optimum gap between parts of substrate metal to be joined
has never been defined
• To prevent warping or porosity, parts are placed on master cast
so that gap distance between them is atleast 0.1mm
FLAME :

• Tip of reducing zone.

• To prevent oxide formation, technician should not remove
flame once it has been applied to joint area until soldering
process has been completed.
• Provides protection from oxidation especially at soldering
temperature

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 TEMERATURE
• Optimal temperature required to solder an area should be
lowest to produce a sound joint.

TIME
• Flame should be maintained in place until filler metal has
flowed completely into connection and a moment longer to
allow flux or oxide to separate from fluid filler metal.

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TECHNIQUES OF SOLDERING
Two techniques used to assemble dental appliances are

Investment soldering

Free hand soldering

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INVESTMENT SOLDERING
Used when very accurate alignment of parts to be joined is needed.

STEPS

 The parts are placed on the master cast with a gap of at least 1mm.

 The parts are fastened with sticky wax before placing soldering
investment.

 Anti flux is applied to confine the flow of solder.

 The investment is preheated to eliminate moisture.

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2013. Phillips' science of dental materials. Elsevier
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 Flux can be applied before or after heat treatment.

 Soldering is carried out with reducing flame at 750- 870°C.

 The investment is cooled 5 min before quenching.

 Flux will cool to a glass which is removed by pickling.

Anusavice,
111 K.J., Shen, C. and Rawls, H.R., 2013. Phillips' 66
FREEHAND SOLDERING

 Free hand soldering is used for soldering orthodontic

appliances.

 Orthodontic torches can be placed on a bench so that both

hands can be used to hold the parts in position.

111 67
OVEN (FURNACE) SOLDERING

A furnace with enough wattage to provide heat required to raise the

temperature of the filler metal to its flow point.

Advantages:

 Uniform temperature

 Close monitoring is possible

 Temperature is known

 Application of vacuum control oxidation

O'Brien, W.J. ed., 2002.

111 Dental materials and their selection. Quintessence Publishing 68
INFRARED SOLDERING
 The unit uses light from a 1000 watt Tungsten filament

 quartz- iodine bulb which is mounted at the primary focal point

of a gold plated elliptical reflector.

 The material to be soldered is placed at the reflectors secondary

focal point at which the reflected infrared energy of Tungsten
light source is focused.

 This is used for high temperature soldering.

O'Brien, W.J. ed., 2002.

111 Dental materials and their selection. Quintessence Publishing 69
CLEAN UP AFTER SOLDERING
 It is important to remove all flux and
solder residues from the soldered joint
and the parent metal.
 The best cleaners to use are ones that
neutralize the acid property of fluxes.
 A good flux cleaner, very warm water and a
soft scrub brush is required.
 This step is very important because any
flux that remains will continue to react
with the solder, causing oxidation

Sakaguchi, R.L. and Powers,111J.M., 2012. Craig's restorative dental materials-e-book. Elsevier Health 70
QUALITIES OF GOOD SOLDERED JOINT

A good soldered joint shows the

following qualities:

 Smooth and polished surface

 Shiny finish

Sakaguchi, R.L. and Powers,

111 J.M., 2012. Craig's restorative dental materials-e-book. Elsevier Health 71
Sciences.
QUALITIES OF POOR SOLDERED JOINT

A poorly soldered joint show the following characteristics:

 Dull or crystallized surfaces

 Air pockets

 Excess Solder

 Solder ball

Sakaguchi, R.L. and Powers,111J.M., 2012. Craig's restorative dental materials-e-book. Elsevier Health 72
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS WHILE SOLDERING
 Solder only in well ventilated areas.

 It is preferable to solder outside or a “fume intake device” can

also be used. This can remove particles smaller than ½ microns
from the air.
 Always thoroughly wash hand after soldering.

 Never eat or drink where soldering is performed.

 Never discard solder scraps into trash. It should be discarded by

proper means or recycled.

Humpston, G. and111Jacobson, D.M. eds., 2004. Principles of soldering. ASM 73

 Always wear safety glasses while soldering as solder can ‘pop’ or
‘spit’.

 Solder always on a fire resistant surface.

 To avoid burning of the hands, always use a needle resistant

pliers or heat resistant gloves to hold small pieces.

Humpston, G. and111Jacobson, D.M. eds., 2004. Principles of soldering. ASM 74

ORTHODONTIC
SOLDERING
 In orthodontic applications low temperature soldering is used to
prevent carbide precipitation and to prevent excessive softening of the
wire.
 Low fusing silver solders are used with a soldering temperature range
of 620-655°C.
 Fluoride fluxes are used for orthodontic stainless steel and other base
metal alloys.
 Free hand soldering technique is employed with a needle like non
luminous gas air flame is used.

Heidemann, J., Witt, E., Feeg, M., Werz, R. and Pieger, K., 2002. Orthodontic soldering techniques:
aspects of quality assurance in the dental laboratory. Journal of Orofacial Orthopedics/Fortschritte
der Kieferorthopädie, 63(4),
111 pp.325-338. 75
 The work should be held 3mm beyond the tip of the blue cone in the
reducing zone of the flame.
 Soldering should be observed in a shadow, against a black back
ground, so that the temperature can be judged by the color of the
work. The color should never exceed a dull red.
 Flux must cover all the areas to be joined before heat is applied.

 As soon as the flux fuses solder is added and heating is continued until
metal flows around the joint. The work is then removed from the heat
and quenched in water.

Heidemann, J., Witt, E., Feeg, M., Werz, R. and Pieger, K., 2002. Orthodontic soldering techniques:
aspects of quality assurance in the dental laboratory. Journal of Orofacial Orthopedics/Fortschritte
der Kieferorthopädie, 63(4),111pp.325-338. 76
APPLICATIONS
 Wire to wire.

 Tubes can be soldered to the bridge of the Adams clasp.

 Attachment of springs to arch wire, when soldering an auxiliary

spring to arch wire, the solder must be a gold one with a melting
point below 800°C.

 Soldering lingual arch or palatal arch.

Adams, C.P.,1970. The design

111 construction and the usage of removable orthodontic appliances. J. 77
SOLDERING FAILURES
 Failure to clean the parts to be joined
 Improper fluxing
 Poor flow of solder
 Over heating of the solder can lead to pitted joint of low
strength
 Besides porosities and brittleness from oxides, gases, or foreign
matter resulting from the soldering procedures as factors for
increasing the incidences of failure of soldered joints.
 Creep, corrosion, stress corrosion cracking, corrosion-fatigue,
and corrosion-erosion.
 Gas embitterment can also be generated by gases formed from
electrochemical processes.

Sakaguchi, R.L. and Powers,111J.M., 2012. Craig's restorative dental materials-e-book. Elsevier Health 78
Sciences.
 WELDING
 The joining of two or more metal pieces by applying heat,
pressure or both without a filler metal to produce a localized
union across the interface through fusion or diffusion.

 Welds are made by passing electric current through the pieces to

be joined which are pressed together.

 The current heats the metal which becomes plastic and the
pressure forges the softened metals into a single piece.

VK
111 Subbarao, 2014. Dental materials. Paras Medical 79
TYPES OF WELDING

 SPOT WELDING

 PRESSURE WELDING

 LASER WELDING

 PLASMA WELDING

Sakaguchi, R.L. and Powers,111J.M., 2012. Craig's restorative dental materials-e-book. Elsevier Health 80
SPOT WELDING

Most orthodontic welding

procedures are carried out by
transmitting a current through
the metal pieces while they are
being in contact with each
other.
E.g.- In orthodontic bands &
brackets.

Iyyer, B.S., 2006. Bhalaji SI. Orthodontics, the Art and Science, 3rd edition. New Delhi: Arya (Medi)
Publishing House. 111 81
PRESSURE OR COLD WELDING

 Done by hammering or
pressure

E.g: Direct filling gold are

pressure welded by mechanical
condenser but metal surface
should be free from adsorbed
gases

Anusavice, K.J., Shen, C. and Rawls, H.R.,

2013. Phillips' science of dental materials.
111
Elsevier Health Sciences 82
LASER WELDING

 Laser generates coherent high

intensity pulse of light that
can be focused.
 By selecting the duration and
intensity of pulse, metals can
be melted without extensive
microstructure damage to
surrounding areas.

111 83
 Laser welding is a high production welding process that produces deep
penetration welds with minimum heat effective zones.

 Laser welding has the advantage of welding dissimilar metals while

producing very low heat

 Generally used for pure titanium crowns, bridges and partial denture
frameworks

 One of the latest commercially available laser welder is the

“ORTHOPHASER

O'Brien, W.J. ed., 2002.

111 Dental materials and their selection. Quintessence Publishing 84
ADVANTAGES
 Processes high alloy metals without difficulty

 Narrow heat affected zone

 Low total thermal input

 Welds dissimilar metals

 No filler metals necessary

 No secondary finishing necessary

 Extremely accurate

 Welds high alloy metals without difficulty

O'Brien, W.J. ed., 2002.

111 Dental materials and their selection. Quintessence Publishing 85
DISADVANTAGES
 Rapid cooling rate may cause cracking in certain
metals

 High cost

 Optical surfaces easily damaged

 High maintenance cost

O'Brien, W.J. ed., 2002.

111 Dental materials and their selection. Quintessence Publishing 86
PLASMA WELDING

 A plasma is a gas which is

heated to an extremely high
temperature and ionized so that
it becomes electrically
conductive.
 The plasma arc welding process
uses this plasma to transfer an
electric arc to a work piece
 The metal to be welded is
melted by the intense heat of
the arc and fuses together.

Manappallil,
111 J.J., 2015. Basic dental materials. JP Medical 87
 The torch delivers a high concentration of heat to a small area.

 Plasma gases are normally argon

Other Types Of Welding

 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

 Cored Wire Welding

 Mig Spot Welding

O'Brien, W.J. ed., 2002.

111 Dental materials and their selection. Quintessence Publishing 88
THE ORTHODONTIC WELDER
 Pioneer work in design of welder for dental purpose was done by
Friel Mc Keag (1939) & resulted in conversion of industrial
machine into a satisfactory orthodontic welder.

111 89
  Consists of an electric transformer which reduces the mains
supply to a low value safe to handle.
 Copper electrodes which convey the current to the work pieces.

 Pressure mechanism to keep the work pieces pressed into

contact
 Timing switch to control the duration of the current flow.

 Working unit is also variable with tapping's on the primary

circuit of the transformer

Sakaguchi, R.L. and Powers,111J.M., 2012. Craig's restorative dental materials-e-book. Elsevier Health 90
PRINCIPLE
 Heat & pressure are the two basic principles involved.

 Electric current is made to pass through two copper electrodes

on either side of the metal being joined.
 Resistance offered by stainless steel to high current generates
high temperature causes metal under electrodes to become
plastic.
 Copper electrodes simultaneously apply pressure on the metals
& therefore squeeze the metals under each other.

Krishnan, V. and Kumar, K.J., 2004. Weld characteristics of orthodontic arch wire materials. The Angle
Orthodontist, 74(4), pp.533-538
111 91
Copper electrodes serve the following purpose
 Transmit the current to the metals to be joined so as to cause a rapid
increase in temperature.

 The two electrodes help in holding together the two metals to be joined.

 Electrodes are designed to apply pressure on the metals being joined.

 As the temperature increases, the pressure exerted by the electrodes helps in

squeezing the metals into each other.

 Electrodes help in conducting the heat produced away from the area so as to
preserve the properties of stainless steel around the weld spot.

O'Brien, W.J. ed., 2002.

111 Dental materials and their selection. Quintessence Publishing 92
VARIABLES AND THEIR
APPLICATION

 Welding of stainless steel depends on the proper use of each of the

following three variables:

1. The current flowing through the circuit.

2. The time during which the current is allowed to flow.

3. The mechanical pressure applied at the welding head.

 The improper application of these variables can result in either over-

or under welding

O'Brien, W.J. ed., 2002.

111 Dental materials and their selection. Quintessence Publishing 93
 UNDER WELDING OVER WELDING

- Insufficient current - Yield weak joint.

- The current passed for an - Progressive corrosion.

insufficient amount of time Occurs when chromium is
- Pressure applied inadequate precipitated at the grain
in approximation. boundaries of each crystal and is
known as weld decay

A satisfactory welded joint is one which is strong, has not undergone

oxidation (blackening), and has not been over compressed during
fusion.
O'Brien, W.J. ed., 2002.
111 Dental materials and their selection. Quintessence Publishing 94
PROCEDURE
 Pieces to be joined are pressed together between copper
electrodes and an electric pulse is applied.
 Electrodes should be cleaned so as to remove any carbide
precipitates.
 Surface of each electrode must be smooth, flat & perpendicular
to its long axis.
 Electrodes should be in total contact. If not they should be filed
until total contact is achieved.

Adams, C.P.,1970. The design

111 construction and the usage of removable orthodontic appliances. J. 95
 Magnitude of the pulse depends upon metal shape & size to be
weld.

 Typical value for pulses are 2-6V for 1/10-1/50th of sec. at 250-270
ampere current.

 Penetration of the softened material should be between 1/4 - 4/5

of thickness of work piece.

Adams, C.P.,1970. The design

111 construction and the usage of removable orthodontic appliances. J. 96
 Welding of wires laid parallel
to each other, flat electrodes
are used.

 Wire laid at right angles,

grooved electrode is used.
Here outer surface of wire is
protected. Weld of this type
is superior than wires laid
parallel.

Adams, C.P.,1970. The design

111 construction and the usage of removable orthodontic appliances. J. 97
• When finer wire is to be welded to thicker wire there is
tendency to overheat light parts, thus grooved electrode is
used

Adams, C.P.,1970. The design

111 construction and the usage of removable orthodontic appliances. J. 98
• When very fine wire is to be welded to a thick wire, a wire strap or
band should be used to wrap around the both.

Adams, C.P.,1970. The design

111 construction and the usage of removable orthodontic appliances. J. 99
WELD DECAY

 It is very important that the passage of current at the weld spot

be of very short duration. In case the current is passed for a
longer time, it results in weld decay.

 It has a poor corrosion resistance.

 When current is released metal is cooled forming weld nugget.

Adams, C.P.,1970. The design

111 construction and the usage of removable orthodontic appliances. J. 100
Methods to reduce Weld decay

 Welding surface should be clean from oxides.

 Surface of electrode must be smooth & flat.

 Adjust welder for proper setting for current & time.

 Apply adequate pressure.

Adams, C.P.,1970. The design

111 construction and the usage of removable orthodontic appliances. J. 101
CLINICAL APPLICATION OF WELDER

 A thorough understanding in the application of the welder Is

required to minimize errors. Following technique is used:
1. The weld mates should be clean of all extraneous materials and
oxides.
2. The surface of each electrode must be smooth, flat, and
perpendicular to its long axis.
3. Adjust the welder to settings recommended by the
manufacturer.

Binder, R.E., 1976. Orthodontic

111 welding. Journal of clinical orthodontics: JCO, 10(2), 102
4. Select the proper electrode for the thickness or shape of the
material to be welded, which prevents overweld or oxidize of
weldmates.

5. Insert the weldmates between the electrodes, close them

together, and depress the weld button.

If sparking is observed, localized overwelding has occurred. The

electrodes should be checked for size and/or contact. If black areas
are seen at the points where the electrodes contacted the
weldmates, overwelding has occurred.

Binder, R.E., 1976. Orthodontic

111 welding. Journal of clinical orthodontics: JCO, 10(2), 103
FOR A SUCCESSFUL
WELDING
 Mount the electrodes correctly in the welder and adjust with
parallel, precision filing to eliminate gaps.

 Weld together only wires of the same material.

 Place the thinner wire in the groove of the lower electrode.

 Use 1540 Newtons of pressure.

 Set the voltage according to the operating instructions.

 Use a single electrical impulse.

Binder, R.E., 1976. Orthodontic

111 welding. Journal of clinical orthodontics: JCO, 10(2), 104
 CONCLUSION
 The choice of solder material has extreme importance in determining the
properties of the soldered joints.
 In orthodontics, silver solders are popular because of their lower fusion
temperatures and easy-handling characteristics.
 Soldering is still a useful and needed procedure for the joining of metallic parts.
 The choice of whether free-hand or investment, torch or oven soldering techniques
are used, as well as variations in gap distance and high or low-fusing soldering
alloys, is in many instances up to the discretion of the orthodontist and technician.

111 105
 Although welding is one of the technical procedures most
commonly used by orthodontists, the process is usually poorly
understood and not employed efficiently.

 In the final analysis, however, the combination of techniques

which offer optimum mechanical, physical, and chemical
properties or offer the desired property with the most favorable
must be selected.

111 106
 TENSILE STRENGTH OF FLAME SOLDERED & LASER WELDED
JOINTS OF STAINLESS STEEL WIRES WITH BAND
International Journal of Innovations in Dental Sciences / August 2017 / Vol 2 / Issue
2

Objectives: To compare the tensile strength of flame soldered

joints and laser welded joints formed with stainless steel wires
and band materials. Also to determine the tensile strength of
various types of joints site preparations (Round wire, Flattened
wire, Sandblasted wire).
Results: The laser welded joints were found to be stronger than
the flame soldered joints at a statistically significant level (P <
0.05). The laser welded joints of sandblasted wire and band
material was found to be stronger than the other subgroups but
there is no statistically significant difference between them.

111 107
Cytotoxicity of Silver Solder Employed in
Orthodontics Angle Orthodontist, Vol 79, No 5, 2009

 Objective: To test the null hypothesis that the silver soldering

employed in orthodontics is not cytotoxic for fibroblasts.
Results:
The results revealed a maximum response rate for the
silver soldering group, as well as severe inhibition of cell
proliferation and growth, more round cells with mostly
darkened and granular aspects, suggesting lysis with cell death.
A similar response was seen in the positive control group.
Conclusion:
The hypothesis is rejected. The silver soldering used in
orthodontics represents a highly cytotoxic material for the
cells analyzed

111 108
 REFERENCES
 Anusavice, K.J., Shen, C. and Rawls, H.R., 2013. Phillips' science
of dental materials. Elsevier Health Sciences
 Humpston, G. and Jacobson, D.M. eds., 2004. Principles of
soldering. ASM international.
 Iyyer, B.S., 2006. Bhalaji SI. Orthodontics, the Art and Science,
3rd edition. New Delhi: Arya (Medi) Publishing House.
 Manappallil, J.J., 2015. Basic dental materials. JP Medical Ltd.
 O'Brien, W.J. ed., 2002. Dental materials and their selection.
Quintessence Publishing Co, Inc.
 V K Subbarao, 2014. Dental materials. Paras Medical Publisher
 Sakaguchi, R.L. and Powers, J.M., 2012. Craig's restorative dental
materials-e-book. Elsevier Health Sciences.

111 109
 Binder, R.E., 1976. Orthodontic welding. Journal of clinical
orthodontics: JCO, 10(2), p.137
 Heidemann, J., Witt, E., Feeg, M., Werz, R. and Pieger, K., 2002.
Orthodontic soldering techniques: aspects of quality assurance in the
dental laboratory. Journal of Orofacial Orthopedics/Fortschritte der
Kieferorthopädie, 63(4), pp.325-338.
 Krishnan, V. and Kumar, K.J., 2004. Weld characteristics of
orthodontic arch wire materials. The Angle Orthodontist, 74(4),
pp.533-538
 Cytotoxicity of Silver Solder Employed in Orthodontics.Maria
Perpe´tua Mota Freitasa; Hugo Mitsuo S. Oshimab; Luciane M.
Menezesc;Denise C. Machadod; Christian Viezzere. Angle
Orthodontist, Vol 79, No 5, 2009

111 110
111 111