PHYSICAL LABORATORY

TECHNIQUES AND METHODS IN

PHYSICAL SCIENCE
GROUP 3
PHYSICAL LABORATORY TECHNIQUES AND
METHOD

• Weighing *Grinding
• Drying
• Centrifugation
• Distillation
• Filtration
• Chromatography
• pH measurement
WEIGHING

• to determine or ascertain the force that

gravitation exerts upon (a person or thing) by
use of a balance, scale, or other mechanical
device:to weigh oneself; to weigh potatoes; to
weigh gases.
 WEIGHING TECHNIQUES

• Toploader
• Direct Weighing
• With nothing on the pan, set to zero by pressing the "on"
button.
• Place weighing bottle, beaker, or vial on balance and set to
zero again.
• Use a clean scoopula to transfer sample into container
slowly, until you reach the desired mass.
• Indirect weighing (Weighing by difference)Place enough of the
sample in a weighing bottle, put the lid on, and place on the
scale. Record the mass.
• Take some out and place it in a different container (whatever you
will be using for the experiment). Record the new mass.The
difference in mass is the mass of the sample transferred.
• Continue this procedure until you have as much sample as you
need.
• It is best to transfer small amounts at a time, so you do not take
more than you need. You should not put excess sample back
into the weighing bottle.
TOP LOADING BALANCE ANALYTICAL BALANCE
DRYING

• Drying is the process of using heat to remove

a liquid (such as water) from a material that contains
the liquid. The material can be a wet solid or a
liquid solution of a solid dissolved in a liquid.
 METHODS OF DRYING
• Heated air drying (convective or direct drying): In this common
technique, a heated stream of air (or other gas) heats the material by
convection and carries away the vapor as humidity. The higher
temperatures speed up diffusion of water inside the solid, so drying is
faster.

• Natural air drying: In this approach, materials are dried with

unheated, forced air, taking advantage of the natural drying
potential of air. The process is slow and weather-dependent, so a
wise, "fan off, fan on" strategy must be devised. The strategy
must take into consideration such factors as air temperature,
relative humidity, and moisture content and temperature of the
material being dried.
• Indirect or contact drying (heating through a hot wall):
Indirect drying techniques include drum drying and vacuum
drying. In drum drying, a heated surface provides the
energy, and aspirators draw vapor out of the chamber that
contains the starting material. In vacuum drying, heat is
supplied by contact conduction or radiation (or
microwaves), and the vapor produced is removed by
a vacuum system.
• Dielectric drying: In this approach, microwaves (radio
frequency waves) are absorbed by the material being dried.
It is currently the focus of intense research. It may be used
to assist with air drying or vacuum drying.
• lyophilization: In this method, the solution is frozen prior to drying and the solvent is then
sublimed (that is, converted to the gas phase directly from the solid phase), below the
melting point of the solvent. Freeze drying is often carried out under reduced pressure
(using a vacuum pump) to allow drying to proceed at a reasonable rate. This process avoids
collapse of the solid structure, leading to a low-density, highly porous product that can
quickly reabsorb the solvent when needed. This method was first used industrially to
produce dehydrated vaccines, and to bring dehydrated blood to assist war casualties.

• Supercritical drying (superheated steam drying): This method involves steam-drying of

products containing water. Strange as it may seem, drying is possible using steam because
the water in the product is boiled off and combined with the drying medium, increasing its
flow. This method is usually employed in a closed circuit and allows a proportion of latent
heat to be recovered by recompression, a feature that is not available with conventional air
drying, for instance.
 CENTRIFUGATION
• Centrifugation is a technique which
involves the application of centrifugal
force to separate particles from a
solution according to their size, shape,
density, viscosity of the medium and
rotor speed.Not only is this process
used to separate two miscible
substances, but also to analyze
the hydrodynamic properties of
macromolecules.
 TECHNIQUES
• Rate Zonal Technique:Particle separation by the
rate zonal technique is based upon differences in the
size, shape and density of particles, the density and
viscosity of the medium and the applied centrifugal
field. Subcellular organelles, which have different
densities but are similar in size, do not separate
efficiently using this method, but separation of
proteins of similar densities and differing only 3
folds in relative molecular mass can be achieved
easily.
• Isopycnic Centrifugation
Technique:Isopycnic centrifugation depends
solely upon the buyout density and not on its
shape, size and time, the size of the particle
affecting only the rate at which it reaches its
isopycnic position in the gradient. The
technique is used to separate particles of similar
size but of different density. Hence soluble
proteins which have very similar densities
cannot be usually separated by this method,
where as sub cellular organelles can be
effectively separated.
METHOD # 1. DIFFERENTIAL
CENTRIFUGATION:

• For particles with same mass but with different densities, the one
with highest density will sediment first. Particles having similar
banding densities can usually be efficiently separated one from
another by differential centrifugation or rate zonal method, pro-
vided that there are at least 10-fold differences in their masses
METHOD # 2. CENTRIFUGAL
ELUTRIATION:

• In this technique the’ separation and purification of a large variety

of cells from different tissues and species can be achieved by a
gentle “washing action” using an elutriator rotor. The technique is
based upon the differences in the set-up in separation chamber of
rotor, between the opposing centripetal liquid flow and applied
centrifugal field being used to separate particles mainly on the
basis of differences in their size.
METHOD # 3. DENSITY GRADIENT
CENTRIFUGATION:

• There are two methods of density gradient centrifugation, the rate

zonal technique and the isopycnic (iso-density or equal density)
technique, and both can be used when quantitative separation of
all the components of mixture of particles is required. They are
also used for the determination of buoyant densities and for the
estimation of sedimentation coefficient.
DISTILLATION
Distillation is a widely used method for separating
mixtures based on differences in the conditions
required to change the phase of components of the
mixture. To separate a mixture of liquids, the liquid
can be heated to force components, which
have different boiling points, into the gas phase.
 TYPES
Simple Distillation
OF DISTILLATION
• Simple distillation may be used when
the boiling points of two liquids are
significantly different from each other
or to separate liquids from solids or
nonvolatile components. In simple
distillation, a mixture is heated to
change the most volatile component
from a liquid into vapor. The vapor rises
and passes into a condenser. Usually,
the condenser is cooled (e.g., by running
cold water around it) to promote
condensation of the vapor, which is
• Steam distillation is used to
separate heat-sensitive
components. Steam is added to the
mixture, causing some of it to
vaporize. This vapor is cooled and
condensed into two liquid
fractions. Sometimes the fractions
are collected separately, or they
may have different density values,
so they separate on their own. An
example is steam distillation of
flowers to yield essential oil and a
water-based distillate.
• Fractional distillation is used when the
boiling points of the components of a
mixture are close to each other, as
determined using Raoult's law. A
fractionating column is used to separate
the components used a series of
distillations called rectification. In
fractional distillation, a mixture is heated
so vapor rises and enters the fractionating
column. As the vapor cools, it condenses
on the packing material of the column. The
heat of rising vapor causes this liquid to
vaporize again, moving it along the column
and eventually yielding a higher purity
• Vacuum Distillation
• Vacuum distillation is used to
separate components that have high
boiling points. Lowering the
pressure of the apparatus also
lowers boiling points. Otherwise,
the process is similar to other forms
of distillation. Vacuum distillation
is particularly useful when the
normal boiling point exceeds the
decomposition temperature of a
compound.
 FILTRATION
• Filtration can be defined as the mechanical or physical process
used for the separation of one substance from another, such as
solids, liquids, and gases, with the aid of an interposing medium
(filter). The term "filtration" applies whether the filter is
mechanical, biological, or physical. The fluid that passes
through the filter is called the filtrate. The filter medium
may be a surface filter, which is a solid that traps solid
particles, or a depth filter, which is a bed of material
that traps the solid.
 FILTRATION METHODS
• General Filtration: The most basic
form of filtration is using gravity to filter
a mixture. The mixture is poured from
above onto a filter medium (e.g., filter
paper) and gravity pulls the liquid down.
The solid is left on the filter, while the
liquid flows below it.
• Vacuum Filtration: A Büchner flask and
hose are used to create a vacuum to suck
the fluid through the filter (usually with
the aid of gravity). This greatly speeds the
separation and can be used to dry the
solid. A related technique uses a pump to
form a pressure difference on both sides of
the filter. Pump filters do not need to be
vertical because gravity is not the source of
the pressure difference on the sides of the
filter.
• Cold Filtration: Cold filtration is used to quickly cool a
solution, prompting the formation of small crystals. This is a
method used when the solid is initially dissolved. A common
method is to place the container with the solution in an ice
bath prior to filtration.
• Hot Filtration: In hot filtration, the solution, filter, and funnel are
heated to minimize crystal formation during filtration. Stemless
funnels are useful because there is less surface area for crystal growth.
This method is used when crystals would clog the funnel or prevent
crystallization of the second component in a mixture.
• Chromatography is a laboratory technique for
the separation of a mixture. The mixture is
dissolved in a fluid called the mobile phase,
which carries it through a structure holding
another material called the stationary phase.
The various constituents of the mixture travel
at different speeds, causing them to separate.
 CHROMATOGRAPHY METHODS
• Paper chromatography is an analytical
method used to separate colored
chemicals or substances. It is primarily
used as a teaching tool, having been
replaced by other chromatography
methods, such as thin-layer
chromatography.
• Thin-layer chromatography is a
chromatography technique used to
separate non-volatile mixtures. Thin-
layer chromatography is performed on
a sheet of glass, plastic, or aluminium
foil, which is coated with a thin layer of
adsorbent material, usually silica gel,
aluminium oxide, or cellulose.
• Column Chromatography is
able to separate substances
based on differential adsorption
of compounds to the adsorbent;
compounds move through the
column at different rates,
allowing them to be separated
into fractions.
• Ion chromatography is a
chromatography process that
separates ions and polar
molecules based on their
affinity to the ion exchanger. It
works on almost any kind of
charged molecule—including
large proteins, small
nucleotides, and amino acids.
• Affinity chromatography is a method of separating
biochemical mixture based on a highly specific interaction
between antigen and antibody, enzyme and substrate,
receptor and ligand, or protein and nucleic acid.
• Partition chromatography is method of separation in which
the components present in the mixture get distributed more
likely into two liquid phases because of differences in
partition coefficients.
 pH MEASUREMENT

• pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.

The pH value states the relative quantity of hydrogen ions
(H+) contained in a solution. The greater the concentration of
H+ the more acidic the solution and the lower the pH. In this
relationship, pH is defined as the negative logarithm of
hydrogen activity.
METHODS OF pH measurement
• This category basically includes two methods: One involves comparing the standard
color corresponding to a known pH with the color of an indicator immersed in the test
liquid using buffer solution. The other method involves preparing pH test paper which is
soaked in the indicator, then immersing the paper in the test liquid and comparing its
color with the standard color. This method is simple, but prone to error. A high degree of
accuracy cannot be expected.
• * Various errors include;
- Error due to high salt concentration in the test liquid
- Error due to the temperature of the test liquid
- Error due to organic substances in the test liquid

The indicator method cannot measure the pH of high-purity water, since the influence of
the indicator itself is too large.
• Hydrogen-Electrode Method

• A hydrogen electrode is made by

adding platinum black to platinum wire
or a platinum plate. It is immersed in
the test solution and an electric charge
is applied to the solution and the
solution is saturated with hydrogen
gas.The electrode potential is
measured between platinum black
electrode and silver chloride electrode.
This potential is inversely proportional
to pH of the solution.
• Quinhydron-Electrode Method
• When quinhydrone is added to a solution, it
separates into hydroquinone and quinone.
Because quinone’s solubility varies
depending on the pH value of the solution,
pH can be determined from the voltage
between a platinum and reference electrode.
Although this method is simple, it is seldom
used today, because it does not work when
oxidizing or reducing substances are
involved, or when the test solution has a pH
above 8 or 9.
• Antimony-Electrode Method
• This method involves immersing the tip of a polished
antimony rod into a test solution, also immersing a
reference electrode, and measuring pH from the
difference in potential between them. This method was
once widely used because the apparatus is sturdy and
easy to handle. However, its application is now quite
limited because results vary depending on the degree of
polish of the electrode, and reproducibility is low.
• Glass-Electrode Method
• The glass electrode method uses two electrodes, a
glass electrode and reference electrode, to determine
the pH of a solution by measuring the voltage
(potential) between them.
This method is the one most commonly used for pH
measurement, since the potential quickly reaches
equilibrium and shows good reproducibility, and
because the method can be used on various types of
solutions, with oxidizing or reducing substances
having very little impact on the result.
The glass electrode method is widely used, not only in
industry but also in many other fields.
• Semiconductor sensor methods
• The semiconductor pH sensor, whose development started around 1970,
replaces a glass electrode with a semiconductor chip. This sensor, known as
an ion sensitive field effect transistor (ISFET), is not only resistant to
damage but also easily miniaturized. Miniaturization allows the use of
smaller amounts of sample for measurement, and makes it possible to
perform measurements in very small spaces and on solid state surfaces.
This sensor promises useful applications in measurement in the fields of
biology and medicine.
• pH imaging
• This is a measurement method in which
pH is determined at multiple points and
the results displayed as an image. It has
been attracting attention as a
technology for visualizing pH
distributions.
GRINDING
• Grinding is an abrasive
machining process that uses a
grinding wheel or grinder as
the cutting tool. Grinding is a
subset of cutting, as grinding
is a true metal-cutting
process. Grinding is very
common in mineral processing
plants and the cement
industry.
GRINDING METHODS

• Surface grinding
Surface grinders are used to produce flat, angular and irregular
surfaces. In the surface grinding process, the grinding wheel revolves
on a spindle; and the workpiece, mounted on either a reciprocating or
a rotary table, is brought into with the grinding wheel
• Horizontal spindle/reciprocating table — This surface
grinder is the most commonly used type in machining
operations. It is available in various sizes to accommodate
large or small workpieces. With this type of surface grinder,
the work moves back and forth under the grinding wheel.
The grinding wheel is mounted on a horizontal spindle and
cuts on its periphery as it contacts the workpiece.
• Vertical spindle/reciprocating table — This type is
particularly suited for grinding long and narrow castings, like
the bedways of an engine lathe. It removes metal with the face
of the grinder wheel while the work reciprocates under the
wheel. The wheelhead assembly, as on most other types of
surface grinders, moves vertically to control the depth of cut.
The table moving laterally accomplishes cross feed.
• Vertical spindle/rotary table — This grinding machine is
capable of heavy cuts and high metal-removal rates. Vertical
spindle machines use cup, cylinder, or segmented wheels.
Many are equipped with multiple spindles to successively
rough, semi-finish, and finish large castings, forgings, and
welded fabrications.