UNIT-II

Mobile Network Layer

 Introductio
n
●
Protocols and mechanisms developed for the
network layer to support mobility.
●
It provides protocol enhancement that allows
transparent routing of IP datagrams to mobile
nodes in the internet.
●
Mobile IP – Adds mobility support to the
internet network layer protocol IP.
●
 Goals, Assumptions
an
●
d Requirements
Receving of IP datagram after leaving your home network.
●
Now nodes needs a so-called topologically correct address.
Quick Solution
– Assign new IP address when enter into new location.

● Increase problem with higher layer protocols like TCP ,

as● they rely on IP layer.
Routers are built for fast forwarding but not for fast
update
of routing table.
– Quick solution not
working.
 Requirements for Mobile IPv4

Compatibility
• Mobile IP has to compatible with all lower layers used in for non-
mobile IP
• support of the same layer 2 protocols as IP
• no changes to current end-systems and routers required
• mobile end-systems can communicate with fixed systems
Transparency
• mobile end-systems keep their IP address
• continuation of communication after interruption of link possible
• point of connection to the fixed network can be changed
Security
• authentication of all registration messages
Efficiency and scalability
• only little additional messages to the mobile system required
(connection typically via a low bandwidth radio link)
• world-wide support of a large number of mobile systems in the whole
Internet
 Example network
HA
MN

router

home network mobile end-system

Internet
(physical home network
for the MN)
FA foreign
network
router
(current physical network
for the MN)
CN

end-system router
 Entities and
Terminology

●
Mobile Nodes – a host or router that changes its point of attachment from
one network or subnetwork to another.
– Mobile node change its location without changing its IP
●
Homeaddress.
Agent – a router on a mobile node's home network which
tunnels datagrams for delivery to the mobile node when it is away
from home.
– Also, maintain current location information for the mobile

● node.Agent – router on a mobile node's visited network which provides

Foreign
routing services to the mobile node while registered.
– It detunnel and deliver the datagram to the mobile node that were tunneled
by the mobile node's home agent
 Entities and
Terminology(Cont.)
● Correspondent Node (CN) – partner through which MN is connected. It can be
a fixed or mobile node.
● Home network – it is subnet the MN belongs to.
●
Foreign network – it is a current subnet the MN visits and which is not a home
network.
● Care-of Address – it defines the current location of the MN from an IP point of
view.
– All the packets sent to the MN are delivered to the COA,not directly to the IP
address of the MN
– Marks the tunnel endpoint (i.e address where packets exit the tunnel)
– Location of COA:-
● Foreign agent COA – COA could be located at the FA, i.e COA is an IP
address of the FA.
● Co-located COA – if the MN temporarily acquired an additional IP
address which acts a COA.This address is topologically correct , and the
tunnel endpoint is at MN.
 IP packet delivery
Data transfer to the mobile system

HA
2
MN

home network 3 receiver

Internet

FA foreign
network

1. Sender sends to the IP address of MN,

HA intercepts packet (proxy ARP)
1 2. HA tunnels packet to COA, here FA,
CN by encapsulation
3. FA forwards the packet
to the MN
sender
 Data transfer from the mobile system

HA
1 MN

home network sender

Internet

FA foreign
network

1. Sender sends to the IP address

of the receiver as usual,
CN FA works as default router

receiver
 IP packet delivery

● CN wants to send an IP packet to the MN.

●
Internet , not having info on the current location of MN, routes the packet to
the router(Home Agent) responsible for the home network of MN.
●
HA now intercept the packet(to find current location)
●
Not found in home n/w then encapsulated and tunnelled to the COA.
●
A new header put in front of the old header showing the (FA) COA as the
new destination.
●
FA now decapsulates the packets (remove additional header)
●
Last, MN sends the packets as usual with its own fixed IP address as source
and
CN's address as the destination.
 Agent Discovery
● One initial problem of an MN after moving is
how to find a foreign agent ?.
● Two types of methods:
– Agent advertisement – in this HA and FA
advertise their presence periodically using
special “agent advertisement” messages.
– Agent solicitation – the mobile node send agent
solicitations messages.
 Agent
Advertisement
● • FA and HA advertise their
presence periodically using special
agent advertisement message.
● • ICMP messages are used with some

mobility extensions.
● • Upper part represent ICMP while lower part

• represent extention needed for mobility.

Agent Advertisement Packet
 Agent Advertisement
Packet
ICMP part

• Type – 9
• Code – 0 (includes non-mobile traffic also) or 16 (route only
mobile traffic)
• #addresses – no. of addresses advertised with this packet
• Lifetime – length of time this advr. is valid
• Preference level– helps to choose a router,which is most eager
router to get new node
 Extension part – for mobility
• type = 16
• length = depends on no.of COAs provided, 6 + 4 * #COAs
• Seq.number: no.of advertisement
• Registration lifetime: max.life time,a node can request during
registration.
• R: registration required
• B: busy, no more registrations
• H: home agent
• F: foreign agent
• M: minimal encapsulation
• G: Generic Routing encapsulation
• r: =0, ignored (in first version this bit is V-specifies the use of header
compression)
• T: FA supports reverse tunneling
• reserved: =0, ignored
 Agent
Solicitation
● No agent advertisement
● Mobile node must send agent solicitations.
● Should not flood the network
●
MN can send three solicitations msgs. , one
per sec. , as soon as enter in new network.
●
Discovery of new agent can be done
anytime.
 Registratio
n
●
Objective – is to inform the HA of the current
location for correct forwarding of packets
●
After receving COA address the MN has to
register with the HA.
●
Registration can be done in two ways:-
– Registration of mobile node via the FA
– Or , directly with the HA
 Registration (COA is the FA)

●
If the COA is at the FAthen,
– MN sends its registration request containing the
COA to the FA which then forward the request to the
HA.
– Now HA will do the mobility binding containing the
mobile node's home IP adress with the current
COA.
 Registration (COA is co-
locted)
● If the COA is co-located.
●
MN send the request directly to the
HA and vice versa.
●
Also , a registration procedure for MNs
returning to their home network.
 Registration
request

● UDP packets are used for registration requests.

● IP source address is the MN interface address and IP destination address is
the FA or HA address.
● Type – 1 , S – an MN wants the HA to retain prior mobility binding
B – MN want to receive broadcast packets received by HA in home n/w
● M & G – minimal or generic routing encapsulation.
● Destnation port – 434
● UDP is used because of low overheads and better performance.
 Registration Reply

● Type – 3
● code – result of the registration request
● lifetime – validity of the registration ,
● Home IP address
● Home Agent address
●
64-bit identification used to match the registration request with reply
 Tunneling &
Encpsulation

● It is mechanisms used for forwrding packets between the HA and

COA.
●
Packets entering a tunnel are forwarded inside the tunnel and leave the
tunnel unchanged.
●
It can be achieved by using encapsulation.
●
Encapsulation is the mechanism of taking a packet consisting of
packet header and data and putting it into the data part of a new
packet.
●
The reverse of encapsulation is decapsulation.
 Encapsulation
Method
IP-in-IP encapsulation
s
● Ver – IP protocol version no.
● IHL – internet header length
● TOS – type of services (copied from
inner header)
● Length – complete encapsulated
packet length.
● IP id. , flags , frag. offset – used
for fragments
● TTL -time to live
● IP-in-IP – upper layer protocol IP-in-IP encapsulation packet format
● IP checksum – error detection
 Minimal Routing
Encapsulation

● In IP-in-IP several fields re redundant

● Minimal encapsulation will remove these redundancy
● Type – 55
● If S bit is set , the original sender address of the CN is
included.
 Generic Routing Encapsulation
● Minimal and IP-in-IP only works for IP while
generic routing also supports other
network layer protocols
● GRE header starts with several flags
● C – checksum is present
● R – offset and routing info present
● K – key field , used for the aunthentication
● S – sequence number present
● s – strict source source routing is used
●
rsv. - is used to distinguishes GRE from IP-
in-IP and minimal encapsulation
● Protocol – the protocol of the packet
following the GRE.
 Optimizatio
n
●
Mobile IP is having inefficient behavior which is
known to be as a triangular routing
●
To optimize the route is to inform the CN of the HA
current location of the MN.
1 2
●
And , CN will cache it in a binding chache.
●
The entity to inform the CN of the location is the
HA.
● CN COA/MN
Optimized mobile IP protocol needs four 3
additional messages :-
– Binding request
– Binding update
– Binding acknowledgement
– Binding warning
 Optimized mobile
●
IP
CN request current location from HA using
binding request.
● HA return the COA address using
binding update.
● Now CN directly send to FA old.
●
Tunnel is formed between CN nd FA old.
MN now change its location
●
Register with FA new
●
This info is forwarded to HA to update
its location.
●
FA new will inform FA old about the
new registration.
● Still CN send data to FA old which forward
the data to FA new.
● FA old will send the binding warning to
● CN. then , CN sends binding request to
● HA
and get the updated FA of the MN.
 DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol
• DHCP
– simplification of installation and maintenance of networked computers
– supplies systems with all necessary information, such as IP address, DNS server
address, domain name, subnet mask, default router etc.
– enables automatic integration of systems into an Intranet or the Internet, can be
used to acquire a COA for Mobile IP
• Client/Server-Model
– the client sends via a MAC broadcast a request to the DHCP server (might be via
a DHCP relay)
DHCPDISCOVER

DHCPDISCOVER
server client

client relay
 DHCP - protocol mechanisms
client
server server
(not selected) initialization (selected)
DHCPDISCOVER DHCPDISCOVER
determine the determine the
configuration configuration
DHCPOFFER DHCPOFFER

collection of replies

selection of configuration
DHCPREQUEST DHCPREQUEST
(reject) (options) confirmation of
configuration
DHCPACK
initialization completed

release
DHCPRELEASE delete context
 Reverse tunneling (RFC 3024, was:
2344)
HA
2
MN

home network sender

1
Internet

FA foreign
network

1. MN sends to FA
2. FA tunnels packets to HA
3 by encapsulation
CN
3. HA forwards the packet to the
receiver (standard case)
receiver
 Mobile IP with reverse tunneling
• Router accept often only “topological correct“ addresses (firewall!)
– a packet from the MN encapsulated by the FA is now topological
correct
– furthermore multicast and TTL problems solved (TTL in the home
network correct, but MN is to far away from the receiver)
• Reverse tunneling does not solve
– problems with firewalls, the reverse tunnel can be abused to
circumvent security mechanisms (tunnel hijacking)
– optimization of data paths, i.e. packets will be forwarded through
the tunnel via the HA to a sender (double triangular routing)
• The standard is backwards compatible
– the extensions can be implemented easily and cooperate with
current implementations without these extensions
– Agent Advertisements can carry requests for reverse tunneling
 IPv6
• Mobile IP was originally designed for IPv4
• Mobility support come free in IPv6.
• No add-ons are needed for securing mobile IP
registration.
• Every IPV6 node, masters address auto-configuration.
• Neighbor discovery mechanism is also specified.
• Every IPv6 node can send binding updates to another
node.
• So MN can send its current COA directly to CN and HA.
 IPv6 Packet Format
0 4 8 16 24 31

Version Traffic Class Flow Label

Payload Length Next Header Hop Limit

SourceAddr (4 words)

DestinationAddr (4 words)

Options (variable number)

Data

CS 640 33
 Mobile Ad-hoc
networks
● Till now mobility of the nodes is supported by the at least
some infrastructure.(home agent, tunnel etc.)
● Their are situations where their no infrastructure.
● Mobiles nodes in an ad-hoc scenario comprise routing and
end system functionality.
● Under those conditions we use multi-hop ad-hoc network
when describing ad-hoc networking.
● Use of such network
– Instant
– infrastructure
– Disaster relief
Remote areas
 Routin
g
Differences between wired n/w and ad-hoc n/w
●
Asymmetric link – signal quality uneven in both direction
of the link.
●
Redundant links – wired n/w have few redundant links
while ad-hoc will have many redundant links.
●
Interference – it is very high in case of wireless ad-hoc
n/w
●
Dynamic topology – change in topology is very frequent
which affects the routing table and routing methods.
 DSDV Routing
●
Destination Sequence Distance Vector is an enhancement
to ditance vector routing for ad-hoc network.
●
Distance Vector – exchange distance vector to its
neighbors for all destination.
● Problem with DV is the cout-to-infinity.
● DSDV adds two things to the DV
– Sequence No. - each routing adv. comes with a seq. no. Seq.
no. help to apply the advertisement in correct order.
– Damping – Transient change in topology that re of
short duration should not destabilize the routing
mechanisms.
 DSDV Routing
● • If the sequence number of one node in the
newly received same as the corresponding
sequence number in the routing table , then
the metric will be compared and the route
with the smallest metric will be used.
DSDV Example
DSDV Example
 DSR
● Dynamic Source Routing
Problem associated with DSDV
●
Previous routing exchange routing information with all nodes ,
although currently their may be no data to exchange.
● Cause unnecessary traffic and consumes more battery power.
● DSR , divides the task into two :-
– Route discovery – a node only discover route to a destination
want to send somthing to this destination.
– Route maintenance – if a node is continuously sending packet
via a route, it has to make sure that the route is held upright.
● DSR eliminates all periodic routing updates.
 DSR
● If the node receive a route request:-
– If the node has already received the request (which is
identified using the unique identifier) , it drops the request
packet.
– If node recognizes its own address as the destination , the
request has reached its target.
– Otherwise, the node appends its own address to a list of
traversed hops in the packets and broadcast this update
request.
● Destination may receive several list containing different paths
from the initiator.It could return the best path, the first path or
several path.
AODV