Oleo Chemicals Engineer

October 19th, 2019

Compression theory is primarily defined by the Ideal Gas Laws, First Laws
& Second Laws Thermodynamics.
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed during a process (such as compression and delivery of a
gas), although it may change from one form of energy to another.

𝑄 = 𝑊 + ∆𝐸
The second law of thermodynamics is more abstract and can be stated in
several ways.
1. Heat cannot, of itself, pass from a colder to a hotter body.
2. Heat can be made to go from a body at lower temperature to one at
higher temperature only if external worn is done.
3. The available energy of the isolated system decreases in all real
processes.
4. Heat or energy (or water), of itself, will flow only downhill

Basically, in thermodynamics, a measure of the unavailability of energy

has been devised and is known as entropy.
𝑄
𝑑𝑆 = 𝑑
𝑇
Note that entropy increases as a system loses heat but remains constant
when there is no gain or loss of heat (as in an adiabatic process).
Ideal Gas obeys the simple equation of state :
𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇
where :
P = absolute pressure, psia (kPa)
v = specific volume, in3/lb (m3/ng)
T = absolute temperature, ºR (ºn)
R = gas constant, 1545.35 ft.lbf/lbm.ºR (8.3144 J/nmol.ºK)
The specific heat of a gas is the heat carrying capacity in a process. Two
different types of specific heats are used in the analysis of compressible
flow machines: specific heats at constant volume ( 𝑐𝑣 ) and constant
pressure (𝑐𝑃 ).
𝐶𝑝 𝑀𝐶𝑝 𝑀𝐶𝑝
𝑘= = =
𝐶𝑣 𝑀𝐶𝑣 𝑀𝐶𝑝 − 1.986
Values of 𝑘 for some commonly used gases and vapors in engineering
applications are: 1.4 (air), 1.264 - 1.4 (superheated steam),1.67
(helium), 1.13 - 1.30 (Freon - 21), 1.33 (products of combustion)
The two specific heats and the gas constant for an ideal gas are related by
the following equation:
𝑀𝐶𝑝 − 𝑀𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅 = 1.986
1
𝑀𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅
𝑘−1
𝑘
𝑀𝐶𝑝 = 𝑅
𝑘−1
To predict the properties of real gases more accurately, the perfect gas
law is often modified by the addition of an empirical value ‘‘Z’’, called the
compressibility factor of gasses.
𝑃𝑣 = 𝑍𝑅𝑇
Where Z can be calculated from
𝑍 3 − 𝑍 2 + 𝐴 − 𝐵 − 𝐵2 𝑍 − 𝐴𝐵 = 0
Where
𝑃𝑅
𝐴 = 0.42748 2.5
𝑇𝑅
𝑃𝑅
𝐵 = 0.08664
𝑇𝑅
Where
𝑃
𝑃𝑅 =
𝑃𝐶
𝑇
𝑇𝑅 =
𝑇𝐶
TR = Reduced Temperature
PR = Reduced Pressure
TC = Critical Temperature
PC = Critical Pressure
T = Observed Temperature
P = Observed Pressure
Compressors are mechanical devices used to increase the pressure
of air, gas or vapor and in the process move it from one location to
another.

Pic 1. Type of compressors

 Table 1. Advantages of compressors
Centrifugal Positive Displacement
Lower installed first cost where Greater flexibility in capacity and
pressure and volume are favorable pressure range
Higher compressor efficiency and
Lower maintenance cost
lower power cost
Greater continuity service and Capability of delivering higher
dependability pressures
Capability of handling smaller
Less operating attention
volumes
Greater volume capacity per unit of Less sensitive to changes in gas
plot area composition and density
Adaptability to high-speed low-
maintenance-cost drivers
Table 2. Dynamic compressors
Compressors Advantages Disadvantages
Centrifugal • Wide operating range • Instability at reduced
• High reliability flow
• Low Maintenance • Sensitive to gas
composition change

Axial • High Capacity for • Low Compression ratios

given size • Limited turndown
• High efficiency
• Heavy duty
• Low maintenance
Multiple Stage Compressor
Series arrangement of cylinders, in which the compressed air from
earlier cylinder (i.e. discharge) becomes the intake air for the next
cylinder (i.e. inlet).
LP = Low Pressure
IP = Intermediate Pressure
HP = High Pressure
Intercooler = Compressed air is cooled between cylinders.

Intercooler Air Delivery

LP IP HP
Cylinder Cylinder Cylinder

Intercooler

Air Intake
Why do we need Multiple Stage?
 High temp rise leads into limitation for the maximum achievable
pressure rise.
 Discharge temperature shall not exceed 150ºC and should not
exceed 1350C for hydrogen rich services
 A multistage compressor compresses air to the required pressure in
multiple stages.
 Intercoolers are used in between each stage to removes heat and
decrease the temperature of gas so that gas could be compressed to
higher pressure without much rise in temperature
Centrifugal compressors
 Multistage centrifugal compressor for 500 – 200,000 inlet acfm.
 Single stage compressor have application 100 – 150,000 inlet acfm
 Operate at speed 3,000 rpm or higher.
 Limit operation : velocity limit of 0.8 – 0.85 Mach number at impeller
 Driven by electric, steam, gas turbine or turbo expanders

How do centrifugal compressors work?

 Achieves compression by applying inertial forces to the gas by
means of rotating impellers.
 It is multiple stage ; each stage consists of an impeller as the
rotating element and the stationary element, i.e. diffuser
 Fluid flow enters the impeller axially and discharged radially
 The gas next flows through a circular chamber (diffuser), where it
loses velocity and increases pressure.

Centrifugal compressor  constant head-variable volume machine,

Reciprocating  constant volume-variable head machine.
Table 3. Centrifugal compressors flow range
Nominal Flow Average Average Speed to
Range polytropic isentropic develop 10,000
(Inlet acfm) efficiency efficiency ft head/wheel
100 – 500 0.70 0.67 20,500
500 – 7,500 0.80 0.78 10,500
7,500 – 20,000 0.86 0.83 8,200
20,000 – 33,000 0.86 0.83 6,500
33,000 – 55,000 0.86 0.83 4,900
55,000 – 80,000 0.86 0.83 4,300
80,000 – 115,000 0.86 0.83 3,600
115,000 – 145,000 0.86 0.83 2,800
145,000 – 200,000 0.86 0.83 2,500
Pic 2. Multiple stage centrifugal Pic 3. Single stage centrifugal
compressors compressors
Pic 2. Centrifugal compressors cutaway
Pic 3. Centrifugal compressors cross section
Pic 4. Centrifugal compressors cross section
Centrifugal compressors capacity (Q)

𝑤 1,545 𝑇1 𝑍1
𝑄=
𝑀𝑊 𝑃1 144

If we assume the compression to be isentropic (reversible adiabatic,

constant entropy), then:
𝑘−1
𝑍𝑅𝑇 𝑃2 𝑘
𝐻𝑖𝑠 = −1
𝑘−1 𝑃1
𝑀𝑊
𝑘

Since these calculations will not be wheel-by-wheel, the head will be

calculated across the entire machine. For this, use the average
compressibility factor:
𝑍1 + 𝑍2
𝑍𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2
 3 2’ 2 2”
P2
PV  C
(Isothermal)

V C
P(Adiabatic)
Pressure

4 1
PV n  C
(Polytropic)
P1

V2 V1
Volume
Isentropic Calculation
 Head (𝑯𝒊𝒔 )
𝑘−1 𝑘−1
𝑘 𝑍𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑅𝑇 𝑃2 𝑘 𝑘 (1,545)𝑍𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑇 𝑃2 𝑘
𝐻𝑖𝑠 = −1 = −1
𝑘 − 1 𝑀𝑊 𝑃1 𝑘−1 𝑀𝑊 𝑃1
 Efficiency (𝜼𝒊𝒔 )
𝑘−1
𝑘 𝑍𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑅𝑇 𝑃2 𝑘
−1
𝑘 − 1 𝑀𝑊 𝑃1
ηis =
h2 − ℎ1
Where h is enthalpy
Also can be written as: 𝑘−1
P2 k
P1 −1
ηis =
T2
T1 − 1
 Gas Horsepower (GHP)
𝑤 𝐻𝑖𝑠
𝐺𝐻𝑃 =
ηis 33,000
Where
w = weight flow, (lb/min)
 Temperature Discharge Theoretical
𝑘−1
𝑃2 𝑘
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 + 𝑇1 −1
𝑃1

 Temperature Discharge Actual

Temperature Discharge Actual can be approximated by:
𝑘−1
𝑃2 𝑘
𝑇1 −1
𝑃1
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 +
𝜂𝑖𝑠
Polytropic Calculation
 Head (𝑯𝑷 )
𝑛 𝑛
𝑛 𝑍𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑅𝑇 𝑃2 𝑛−1 𝑛 (1,545)𝑍𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑇 𝑃2 𝑛−1
𝐻𝑃 = −1 = −1
𝑛 − 1 𝑀𝑊 𝑃1 𝑛−1 𝑀𝑊 𝑃1
Where:
𝑃
log 𝑃2
1
𝑛=
𝑣
log 𝑣2
1
v = specific volume
 Efficiency (𝜼𝑷 ) 𝑛
𝑛 𝑍𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑅𝑇 𝑃2 𝑛−1
𝑛 − 1 𝑀𝑊 𝑃1 −1
ηP =
ℎ2 − ℎ1
Where h is enthalpy
Also can be written as:
𝑘−1
P2 𝑘
ln −1
P1
ηP =
T
ln T2
1
 Gas Horsepower (GHP)
𝑤 𝐻𝑃
𝐺𝐻𝑃 =
ηP 33,000
Where
w = weight flow, (lb/min)

 Temperature Discharge Actual

𝑛−1
𝑃2 𝑛
𝑇2 = 𝑇1
𝑃1
Mechanical Losses
Horsepower losses due to friction in bearings, seals, and speed
increasing gears must be added.

𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝐺ℎ𝑝 0.4

To calculate BHP
𝐵𝐻𝑃 = 𝐺ℎ𝑝 + 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

Speed of Compressors (N)

The equation is
1300 𝐻′
𝑁=
𝐷 𝜇

Where
D = diameter impeller
H’ = head max each stage
𝜇 = pressure coefficient, average value 0.55
PERFORMANCES

Pic 5. k value correction factor

PERFORMANCES

Pic 6. Basic BHP

PERFORMANCES

Pic 7. Basic Head

PERFORMANCES

Pic 8. Temperature Rise

PERFORMANCES
For Horsepower
 Read Pic 6. Intake volume expressed as CFM/1000 at actual P & T
 Read Pic 5 for k multiplier
 Required BHP
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑘 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟 intake pressure psia (𝑍𝑎𝑣𝑔 )
𝐵𝐻𝑃 =
14.5
For Number of Stages
 Read Pic 7. Basic head read in thousand of feet
 Read Pic 5 for k multiplier
 Polytropic Head
28.95
𝐻𝑃 = 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑘 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑍𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
 No of stages
𝐻𝑃
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 =
9500
For Discharge Temperature
 Read Pic 8. Use k value
 Temp Rise = (intake temp, ºR)(multiplier)
 Discharge Temp (ºF) = (temp rise) + (intake temp, ºF)
PERFORMANCES
Performance of centrifugal compressor depend on speed of the
compressor itself.
𝑄110 𝑄100 𝑄90
𝑄 ∝ 𝑁, 𝑖. 𝑒. , = =
𝑁110 𝑁100 𝑁90
𝐻110 𝐻100 𝐻90
𝐻 ∝ 𝑁 2 , 𝑖. 𝑒. , = =
𝑁110 2 𝑁100 2 𝑁90 2
𝐵𝐻𝑃110 𝐵𝐻𝑃100 𝐵𝐻𝑃90
𝐵𝐻𝑃 ∝ 𝑁 3 , 𝑖. 𝑒. , = =
𝑁110 3 𝑁100 3 𝑁90 3

The temperature will affect to compressor performance

𝐵𝐻𝑃110 𝐵𝐻𝑃100 𝐵𝐻𝑃90
𝐵𝐻𝑃 ∝ 𝑇, 𝑖. 𝑒. , = =
𝑇110 𝑇100 𝑇90
It also depend on impeller diameter
 Similar impeller, same speed and operating condition

𝐻110 𝐻100 𝐻90

𝐻 ∝ 𝐷2 , 𝑖. 𝑒. , = =
𝐷110 2 𝐷100 2 𝐷90 2
𝑄110 𝑄100 𝑄90
𝑄 ∝ 𝐷3 , 𝑖. 𝑒. , = =
𝐷110 3 𝐷100 3 𝐷90 3
𝐵𝐻𝑃110 𝐵𝐻𝑃100 𝐵𝐻𝑃90
𝐵𝐻𝑃 ∝ 𝐷3 , 𝑖. 𝑒. , = =
𝐷110 5 𝐷100 5 𝐷90 5

 Reduce impeller, but speed still constant

𝑄110 𝑄100 𝑄90
𝑄 ∝ 𝐷, 𝑖. 𝑒. , = =
𝐷110 𝐷100 𝐷90
𝐻110 𝐻100 𝐻90
𝐻 ∝ 𝐷2 , 𝑖. 𝑒. , = =
𝐷110 2 𝐷100 2 𝐷90 2
𝐵𝐻𝑃110 𝐵𝐻𝑃100 𝐵𝐻𝑃90
𝐵𝐻𝑃 ∝ 𝐷3 , 𝑖. 𝑒. , = =
𝐷110 3 𝐷100 3 𝐷90 3
 Pic 8. Typical effect of variable control
1–1 Capacity vs speed change
2–2 Horsepower change as Speed 1 – 1 changes
3–3 Horsepower change use discharge throttling at constant speed
4–4 Horsepower change use suction throttling at constant speed
Surge
The surge limit defines the flow at which, for a given speed, the
operation of the compressor becomes unstable. At flow rates below
the surge limit the characteristic curve actually droops toward zero
flow after having reached its maximum point at the surge limit.

Stonewall (choke)
The stonewall limit of the performance curve defines the flow at which
the gas velocity at one of the impellers approaches the velocity of
sound for the gas at the conditions within the compressor where this
sonic condition is first encountered
Pic 9. Surge limit & choke limit
Low Discharge  Compressor not up to speed.
 Excessive compressor inlet temperature.
Pressure  Low inlet pressure.
 Leak in discharge piping.
 Excessive system demand from compressor.

Compressors  Inadequate flow through the compressor.

 Change in system resistance due to
Surge obstruction in the discharge piping or
improper valve position.
 Deposit buildup on rotor or diffusers
restricting gas flow.

Shaft  Piping strain.

 Warped bedplate, compressor or driver.
Misalignment  Warped foundation.
 Loose or broken foundation bolts.
 Defective grouting.

Water in Lube  Condensation in oil reservoir.

 Leak in lube oil cooler tubes or tube-sheet.
Oil
 High Bearing  Inadequate or restricted flow of lube oil to
bearings.
Oil Temperature  Poor conditions of lube oil or dirt or gummy
deposits in bearings.
 Inadequate cooling water flow lube oil cooler.
Lube oil temperature  Fouled lube oil cooler.
leaving bearings  Wiped bearing.
should never be  High oil viscosity.
 Excessive vibration.
permitted to exceed  Water in lube oil.
180°F.  Rough journal surface

 Faulty lube oil pressure gauge or switch.

Low Lube Oil  Low level in oil reservoir.
Pressure  Oil pump suction plugged.
 Leak in oil pump suction piping.
 Clogged oil strainers or filters.
 Failure of both main and auxiliary oil pumps.
 Operation at a low speed without the auxiliary
oil pump running (if main oil pump is shaft-
driven).
 Relief valve improperly set or stuck open.
 Leaks in the oil system.
 Incorrect pressure control valve setting or
operation.
 Bearing lube oil orifices missing or plugged.
 Excessive  Improperly assembled parts.
 Loose or broken bolting.
Vibration  Piping strain.
 Shaft misalignment.
 Worn or damaged coupling.
Vibration may be  Dry coupling (if continuously lubricated type
transmitted from the is used).
coupled machine. To  Warped shaft caused by uneven heating or
localize vibration, cooling.
disconnect coupling  Damaged rotor or bent shaft.
and operate driver  Unbalanced rotor or warped shaft due to
alone. This should severe rubbing.
 Uneven build-up of deposits on rotor wheels,
help to indicate causing unbalance.
whether driver or  Excessive bearing clearance.
driven machine is  Loose wheel(s) (rare case).
causing vibration.  Operating at or near critical speed.
 Operating in surge region.
 Liquid "slugs" striking wheels.
 Excessive vibration of adjacent machinery
(sympathetic vibration).
Any question?