Approximation

In many instances exact numbers are not necessary or even desirable. In those
circumstances approximations are given. The approximations can take several forms. The
common types of approximation are dealt with below.

Rounding
If 28, 617 people attend a gymnastics competition, this figure can be reported to
various levels of accuracy.
To the nearest 10, 000 the figure would be rounded up to 30, 000.
To the nearest 1,000 the figure would be rounded up to 29, 000.
To the nearest 100 the figure would be rounded up to 28, 600.
In this type of situation it is unlikely that the exact number would be reported.
Exercise 2.1
1. Round the following numbers to the nearest 1000:
a.) 68 786 = _______ b.) 74 245 = ________ c.) 89 000 = _______
d.) 4020 = ________ e.) 99 500 = ________ f.) 999 999 = _______

2. Round the following numbers to the nearest 100:

a.) 78 540 = _______ b.) 6 858 = ________ c.) 14 099 = _______
d.) 8084 = ________ e.) 950 = ________ f.) 2 984 = _______

3. Round the following numbers to the nearest 10:

a.) 485 = _______ b.) 692 = ________ c.) 8 847 = _______
d.) 83 = ________ e.) 4 = ________ f.) 997 = _______
 Decimal Places
A number can also be approximated to a given number of decimal place (d.p.)
This refers to the number of digits written after a decimal point.

Worked examples:
a. Write 7.864 to 1 d.p.
The answer needs to be written with one digit after the decimal point.
However, to do this, the second digit after the decimal point also needs to be
considered. If it is 5 or more then the first digit is rounded up.
Example: 7.864 is written as 7.9 to 1 d.p.
b. Write 5.574 to 2 d.p.
The answer h ere is to be given with two digits after the decimal point. In
this case the third digit after the decimal point needs to be considered. As the
third digit after the decimal point is less than 5, the second digit is not rounded
up.
Example: 5.574 is written as 5.57 to 2 d.p.
Exercise 2.2
1. Give the following to 1 d.p.
a.) 558 = _______ b.) 0.73 = ________ c.) 11.86 = _______
d.) 157.39 = ________ e.) 4.04 = ________ f.) 15.045 = _______
g.) 2.95 = ________ h.) 0.98 = ________ i.) 12.049 = _______

2. Give the following to 2 d.p.

a.) 6.473 = _______ b.) 9.587 = ________ c.) 16.476 = _______
d.) 0.088 = ________ e.) 0.014 = ________ f.) 9.3048 = _______
g.) 99.996 = ________ h.) 0.0048 = ________ i.) 3.0037 = _______
 Significant figures

Numbers can also be approximated to a given number of

significant figures (s.f.). In the number 43.25 the 4 is the most
significant figure as it has a value of 40. In contrast, the 5 is the least
significant as it has a value of 5 hundredths.
Worked examples:
a.) Write 43.25 to s.f.
Only the three most significant digits are written, however the fourth digit needs to be
considered to see whether the third digit is to be rounded up or not.
Example: 43.25 is written as 43.3 to 3 s.f.

b.) Write 0.0043 to 1 s.f.

In this example only two digits have any significance, the 4 and the 3. The 4 is the most
significant and therefore is the only one of the two to be written in the answer.
Example: 0.0043 is written as 0.004 to 1 s.f.
Exercise 2.3
1. Write the following to the number of significant figures written in the brackets:
a.) 48 599 ( 1 s.f.) = _________ b.) 48 599 ( 3 s.f.) = __________ c.) 6 841 ( 1 s.f) = _________

d.) 7 538 ( 2 s.f.) = _________ e.) 483.7 ( 1 s.f.) = __________ f.) 2.5728 ( 3 s.f.) = _________

g.) 990 ( 1 s.f.) = _________ h.) 2045 ( 2 s.f.) = __________ i.) 14.952 ( 3 s.f) = _________

2. Write the following to the number of significant figures written in the brackets:
a.) 0.085 ( 1 s.f.) = _________ b.) 0.5932 ( 1 s.f.) = __________ c.) 0.942 ( 2 s.f) = _________

d.) 0.954( 1 s.f.) = _________ e.) 0.954 ( 2 s.f.) = __________ f.) 0.003 05 (1 s.f.) = _________

g.) 0.003 05( 2 s.f.) = _________ h.) 0.009 73 2 s.f.) = __________ i.) 0.009 73 ( 1 s.f) = _________
 Appropriate Accuracy
- In many instances calculations carried out using a calculator produce answers
which are not whole numbers.
-A calculator will give the answer to as many decimal places as will fit on its
screen.
- In most cases this degree of accuracy is neither desirable nor necessary. Unless
specifically asked for, answers should decimal places is usually sufficient. In the
examination, you will usually be asked to give your answers exactly or correct to
three significant figures appropriate; answers in degrees to be given to one
decimal places.
Worked examples:
Calculate 4.64 ÷ 2.3 giving your answer to an appropriate degree of accuracy.

The calculator will give the answer to 4.64 ÷ 2.3 as 2.0173913.

However the answer given to 1 d.p. is sufficient.

Therefore 4.64 ÷ 2.3 = 2.0 (1 d.p.)

 Estimating answers to
calculations
Even though may calculations can be done quickly and effectively on a
calculator, often an estimate for an answer can be a useful check. This is done by
rounding each of the numbers in such a way that the calculation becomes
relatively straightforward.

Estimation is finding a number that is close enough to the right answer.

* You are not trying to get the exact right answer
* What you want is something that is good enough (usually in a hurry!)
Worked examples:
a.) Estimate the answer to 57 x 246.
Here are two possibilities:
i.) 60 x 200 = 12 000
ii.) 50 x 250 = 12 500

b.) Estimate the answer to 6386 ÷ 27.

6 000 ÷ 30 = 200
Exercise 2.4
1. Calculate the following, giving your answer to an appropriate degree of accuracy:
a.) 23.456 x 17.89 = __________ b.) 0.4 x 12.62 = __________

c.) 18 x 9.24 = __________ d.) 76.24 ÷ 3.2 = __________

e.) 7.62 = __________ f.) 16.423 = __________

g.) 2.3x3.37 = __________ h.) 8.31 = __________

4 2.02
i.) 9.2 ÷ 42 = __________

2. Without using a calculator, estimate the answers to the following:

a.) 62 x 19 = __________ b.) 270 x 12 = __________

c.) 55 x 60 = __________ d.) 4 950 x 28 = __________

e.) 0.8 x 0.95 = __________ f.) 0.184 x 475 = __________

3.Without using a calculator, estimate the answers to the following:

a.) 3946 ÷ 18 = __________ b.) 8287 ÷ 42 = __________

c.) 906 ÷ 27 = __________ d.) 5520 ÷ 13 = __________

e.) 4 8 ÷ 0.12 = __________ f.) 610 ÷ 0.22 = __________

4. Without using a calculator, estimate the answers to the following:

a.) 78.45 + 51.02 = __________ b.) 168.3 - 87.09 = __________

c.) 2.93 x 3.14 = __________ d.) 84.2 ÷ 19.5 = __________

e.) 4.3x 7.52 = __________ f.) 9.83 = __________

2
15.6 ( 2.2)
5. Using estimation, identify which of the following are definitely incorrect. Explain your
reasoning clearly.
a.) 95 x 212 = 20 140 ____________ b.) 44 x 17 = 748 ____________
c.) 689 x 413 = 28 457 ____________ d.) 142 656 ÷8 = 17 832 ____________
8.42 x 46
e.) 77.9 x 22.6 = 2512.54 ____________ f.)  19366 ____________
0.2

6. Estimate the shaded areas of the following shapes. Do not work out an exact answer.
a. b.
 c.

7. Estimate the volume of each of the solid below. Do NOT work out an exact answer.
 Upper and lower bounds

Numbers can be written to different degrees of accuracy. For example 4.5, 4.50 and
4.500, although appearing to represent the same number, do not. This is because they are
written to different degrees of accuracy.
4.5 is rounded to one decimal place and therefore any number from 4.45 up to but not
including 4.55 would be rounded to 4.5. On a number line this would be represented as:

As an inequality where x represents the number it would be expressed as

4.45 ≦ x ≦ 4.55
4.45 is known as the lower bound of 4.5, whilst 4.55 is known as the upper bound.
Note that implies that the number is not included in the solution

whilst implies that the number is included in the solution.

4.50 on the other hand is written to two decimal places and therefore only

numbers from 4.95 up to but not including 4.505 would be rounded to 4.50.

This therefore represents a much smaller range of numbers than that being

rounded 4.5. Similarly the range if number being rounded to 4.500 would be

even smaller.
Worked example:
A girl's height is given as 162 cm to the nearest centimeter.
i.) Work out the lower and upper bounds within which her height can lie.
Lower bound = 161.5 cm
Upper bound = 162.5 cm
ii.) Represent this range of numbers on a number line.

iii.) If the girl's height is h cm, express this range as an inequality.

161.5 ≦ h 162.5
Exercise 2.5
1. Each of the following numbers is expressed to the nearest whole number.

i.) Give the upper and lower bounds of each.

ii.) Using x as the number, express the range in which the number lies as an inequality.

a.) 6 → Lower bound = 5.5 Upper bound = 6.5 5.5 ≤ x < 6.5

b.) 83 → Lower bound = 82.5 Upper bound = 83.5 82.5 ≤ x < 83.5

c.) 152 → Lower bound = 151.5 Upper bound = 152.5 151.5 ≤ x < 152.5

d.) 1000 → Lower bound = 999.5 Upper bound = 1000.5 999.5 ≤ x < 1000.5

e.) 100 → Lower bound = 99.5 Upper bound = 100.5 99.5 ≤ x < 100.5
2. Each of the following numbers is correct to one decimal place.

i.) Give the upper and lower bound of each.

ii.) Using x as the number, express the range in which the number lies as an inequality.

a.) 3.8 → Lower bound = 3.75 Upper bound = 3.85 3.75 ≤ x < 3.85

b.) 15.6 → Lower bound = 15.55 Upper bound = 15.65 15.55 ≤ x < 15.65

c.) 1.0 → Lower bound = 0.95 Upper bound = 1.05 0.95 ≤ x < 1.05

d.) 10.0 → Lower bound = 9.95 Upper bound = 10.05 9.95 ≤ x < 10.05

e.) 0.3 → Lower bound = 0.25 Upper bound = 0.35 0.25 ≤ x < 0.35
 Calculating with upper and lower
bounds (用上界和下界计算)

When numbers are written to a specific degree

if accuracy, calculations involving those numbers

also give a range of possible answers.
Worked example:
a.) Calculate the upper and lower bound for the following calculation, given that
each numbers is given to the nearest whole numbers.
34 x 65
34 lies in the range 33.5 ≦ x < 34.5
65 lies in the range 54.5 ≦ x < 65.5

The lower bound of the calculation is obtained by multiplying together the

two lower bounds. Therefore the minimum product is 33.5 x 64.5, ie. 2160.75.
The upper bound of the calculation is obtained by multiplying together the
two upper bounds. Therefore the maximum product is 34.5 x 65.5, ie. 2259.75.
b.) Calculate the upper and lower bounds to 33.5 given that each of the
22.0
numbers is accurate to 1 d.p.
33.5 lies in the range 33.45 ≦ x < 33.55
22 lies in the range 21.95 ≦ x < 22.05

The lower bound of the calculation is obtained by dividing the lower bound
of the numerator by the upper bound of the denominator. So the minimum value
is 33.55 ÷ 22.05, i.e. 1.52 ( 2 d.p.)
The upper bound of the calculation is obtained by dividing the upper bound
of the numerator by the lower bound of the denominator. So the maximum value
is 33.55 ÷ 21.95, i.e. 1.53 ( 2.dp.)
Exercise 2.6
1. Calculate the lower and upper bounds for the following calculations, if each of the numbers is
given to the nearest whole number.
a.) 14 x 20 → Lower Bound: 13.5 x 19.5 = 263.25 Upper Bound: 14.5 x 20.5 = 297.25

b.) 135 x 25 → Lower Bound: 134.5 x 24.5 = 3295.25 Upper Bound: 135.5 x 25.5 = 3455.25

c.) 100 x 50 → Lower Bound: 99.5 x 49.5 = 4925.25 Upper Bound: 100.5 x 50.5 = 5075.75
40 39.5 40.5
d.) 10 → Lower Bound: 9.5 = 4.16 (2 d.p.) Upper Bound: 10.5 = 3.86 (2 d.p.)
33 32.5 33.5
e.) 11 → Lower Bound: 10.5= 3.10 (2 d.p.) Upper Bound: 11.5 = 2.91 (2 d.p.)
125 124.5 125.5
f.) 15 → Lower Bound: 14.5= 8.59 (2 d.p.) Upper Bound: 15.5= 8.10 (2 d.p.)
12 x 65 11.5 x 64.5 12.5 x65.5
g.) 16 → Lower Bound: 15.5 = 47.85 (2 d.p.) Upper Bound: 16.5 = 49.62 (2 d.p.)
101x 28 100.5 x 27.5 101.5x 28.5
h.) 69 → Lower Bound: 68.5 = 40.34 (2 d.p.) Upper Bound: 69.5 = 41.62 (2 d.p.)
2. Calculate the lower and upper bounds for the following calculations, if each of the numbers is given to 1 d.p.

a.) 2.1 + 4.7 → Lower Bound: 2.05 + 4.65 = 6.7 Upper Bound: 2.15 + 4.75 = 6.9

b.) 6.3 x 4.8 → Lower Bound: 6.25 x 4.75 = 29.69 ( 2 d.p.) Upper Bound: 6.35 x 4.85 = 30.8 ( 2 d.p.)

c.) 10.0 x 14.9 → Lower Bound: 9.95 x 14.85 = 147.76 ( 2 d.p.) Upper Bound: 10.5 x 14.95 = 156.98 (2 d.p.)

d.) 17.6 - 4.2 → Lower Bound: 17.55 - 4.15 = 13.4 Upper Bound: 17.65 - 4.25 = 13.4
8.5  3.6 8.45  3.55 8.55  3.65
e.) → Lower Bound: = 1.78 (2 d.p.) Upper Bound: = 1.78 (2 d.p.)
6.8 6.75 6.85
7.7 - 6.2 7.65 - 6.15 7.75 - 6.25
f.) → Lower Bound: = 0.43 (2 d.p.) Upper Bound: = 0.42 (2 d.p.)
3.5 3.45 3.55
（16.4） 2
（16.35） 2
（16.45） 2
g.) → Lower Bound: = 47.85 (2 d.p.) Upper Bound: = 37.12 (2 d.p.)
（3.0 - 0.3） 2
（2.95 - 0.25） 2
（3.05 - 0.35） 2

101x 28 100.5 x 27.5 101.5x 28.5

h.) → Lower Bound: = 40.34 (2 d.p.) Upper Bound: = 41.62 (2 d.p.)
69 68.5 69.5
i.) ( 0.1 - 0.2) 2 → Lower Bound: ( 0.95 - 0.15)2 = 0.64 Upper Bound: (0.15 - 0.25)2 = 0.01