What is research?

• Gathering information needed to

answer a question, and thereby
help in solving a problem.
• Systematic and organized effort
to investigate.
Science is
a method
• A procedure
to produce
knowledge i.e.
discovering
uniformities/
principles,
laws in this
universe.
 Process of “sensory
experiences”

• Observation  Repetition 
Re-observation.
• By repeating the observation
researchers want to be
definite/positive.
• This approach is called
positivism
Results are
organized,
systematized, and
made part of the body
of knowledge.
 2. Verifiable

Use senses to confirm or

refute the observation.
“Sensory experiences.”
Intuitions and revelations are
out. Replicability needed.
4. Deterministic

Explains why things

happen? Parsimony 
Minimum No. of variables
that explain variance.
 6. Statistical
generalization

Subjecting information to
statistical analysis.
(Statistics is a device for
comparing what is observed
and what is logically
expected).
1. Purpose of Research
What the researcher trying to
accomplish.
a. Exploratory/Formulative
b. Descriptive
c. Explanatory
Studies can be multipurpose
a. Exploratory
Research
• Initial research
conducted to clarify
and define the nature
of the problem.
Exploring a new topic.
• Specifically there could
be number of goals of
exploratory research.
 Goals of Exploratory Research
• Become familiar with the topic. Develop
well grounded picture of the situation.
• Develop tentative theories.
• Determine the feasibility of study.
• Formulate questions and refine issues for
more systematic inquiry.
• Develop techniques and a sense of
direction for future research
b. Descriptive Research

• Research designed to describe

characteristics of the
phenomenon understudy.
• Helps in diagnostic analysis
• Specific goals can be:
Goals of Descriptive Research
• Describe the situation/characteristics.
Provide an accurate profile of a group.
• Give a verbal or numerical picture (%).
• Present basic background information.
• Create a set of categories or classify.
• Clarify sequence, set of stages.
• Focus on ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘when’, ‘where’
and ‘how’ but not on ‘why’.
c. Explanatory Research
• Also called as causal research i.e.
• ‘Why’? Explanation.
• Identify cause and effect
relationship among different
factors.
Goals of Explanatory Research
• Explain things not just reporting. Why?
• Which explanation is better.
• Determine the accuracy of theory.
• Advance knowledge about underlying proces
• Build and elaborate a theory  complete.
• Extend a theory or principle into new areas.
• Provide evidence to support or refute an
explanation or prediction.
2. The Uses of Research
• a. Basic Research
• Pure/fundamental/academic
• Developing/refuting/supporting
theories. Expand knowledge.
• Explanatory research is the most
common
• Applied can also contribute.
b. Applied Research
• Solve specific problems  help
practitioners. Market new product.
• Choose one policy over the other.
• For improving productivity 
problem with machines, raw
material, persons working.
Basic and applied research compared
Basic Applied
• Intrinsically satisfying • R  part of job
• Freedom. • Constrained to demands
of sponsors
• Hi standards applied. • R quick and dirty
may not meet hi
standards.
• Logic and rigorous • Apply to areas of interest
research design to sponsors.
• Basic knowledge. • Practical payoffs.
• Success results • Success results are
published, impact on used by sponsors.
other scientists.
Types of applied research
- Action research: Those who are being
studied participate in research process;
research incorporates popular knowledge;
focus on power with goal of empowerment
increase awareness; tied to political action
- Impact Assessment: Estimate the likely
consequences of planned change.
- Evaluation Research: Did the program
work? Measures the effectiveness of
program.
3. Time Dimension of Research
• Cross-Sectional Research: Observe
at one point in time. Snapshot study.
• Longitudinal Research: Examine at
more than one time. Can be 
- Time series study.
- Panel study.
- Cohort study – Category of people
who share the same experience.
4. Research Techniques Used
• Experimental technique.
• Surveys. Quantitative

• Content analysis.
• Use of existing statistics.
• Field research.
• Case study. Qualitative
• Focus group discussions
» Mixed methods/techniques
 The purpose of
science concerns:
• The expansion of knowledge;
• The discovery of truth; and
• To make prediction.
 Theory building is the means
by which basic researchers hope
to achieve this purpose.
 A scientist poses
questions like:
• What produces inflation?
• Does student teacher interaction
influence students’ performance?
Looking for:
• Explanation
• Prediction
• Understanding the process to reach
prediction
• These are the purposes of theory.
 A systematic and A suggested
general attempt to explanation for
explain something… something…

“Theory”
“Why do people
“Why do
commit crimes?
people get
married?”

“How does the

“Why do kids play
media affect us?” truant from school?”

“Why do some people

believe in God?” “How is our identity
shaped by culture?”
 Theory
• A coherent set of general
propositions used as principles of
explanation of the apparent
relationships of certain observed
phenomena.
• Key element in this definition is
proposition.
 Proposition
• A statement concerned with the logical
relationships among concepts.
• Logic (argument) abstracted from
observed reality.
• Theory is the highest level of
abstraction.
• Theory is a network of propositions.
Theory Building Is A Process Of
Increasing Abstraction

Increasingly more abstract

Theories

Propositions

Concepts

Observation of objects
and events (reality )
 Concept
• A generalized idea about a class of objects,
attributes, occurrences, or processes that has
been given a name
• Building blocks of theory that abstract reality.
Examples 
• “leadership,” “productivity,” “morale,”
“motivation,” “inflation,” “happiness,”
“banana”
 Concepts are
Abstractions of Reality
Abstract
Level CONCEPTS

Empirical OBSERVATION OF OBJECTS

Level AND EVENTS (REALITY)
A Ladder Of Abstraction
For Concepts

Increasingly more abstract

Vegetation

Fruit

Banana

Reality
Theory and Research
• Research produces facts.
• Are facts and theories different?
• Soft mental images vs. empirical world of
hard, settled, and observable things.
• Theory and fact (research) contribute to
each other.
 Role of Theory
• Theory as orientation. Framework. Phenomenon
may be studied in different ways. Narrows the
range of facts to be studied. Study of football.
• Theory as conceptualization and classification.
Provides concepts.
• Theory in summarizing role. Empirical
generalizations.
• Theory predicts facts. Extrapolation.
• Theory points gaps in knowledge.
 Role of Facts
• Facts initiate theory.
• Facts lead to the rejection and
reformulation of theory. Alteration and
expansion.
• Facts clarify theory. New facts redefine
theory. Provide further clarification.
 Theory and Research:
The Dynamic Duo
• Theory and research are
interrelated. The dichotomy is
artificial.
• Researchers weave together
knowledge from different studies
into more abstract theory.
 Concept
• Things we observe  Observable
realities  physical or abstract
• For purposes of identification of a
reality we try to give a name to it.
• By using name we communicate
with others. Part of language
• Names are constructs.
• These constructs are concepts.
 Concepts are mental
images of reality
• Concept is an idea expressed as
symbol or in words.
• Words are also symbols.
• Agreement to represent ideas by
sounds or written words.
• Concepts can be symbols.
 An Abstraction of reality
• Table, leadership, productivity,
morale are all labels given to some
phenomenon (reality) 
• Concepts stand for phenomenon
not the phenomenon itself.
• It may be called an abstraction of
empirical reality.
 Concepts are
Abstractions of Reality
Abstract
Level CONCEPTS

Empirical OBSERVATION OF OBJECTS

Level AND EVENTS (REALITY)
Degree of Abstraction
• Moving up the ladder of
abstraction, the basic concept
becomes more abstract, wider
in scope, and less measurable.
 Sources of Concepts
• We create concepts from personal
experience. Mass, speed, family.
• We borrow from other disciplines.
• We develop a specialized jargon or
terminology for a particular
subject.
 Importance to Research
• Concepts are basic to all thought and
communication.
• Special problems grow out of the need
for concept precision and
inventiveness.
• We use concepts in hypothesis
formulation.
 Definitions
• Confusions about the meanings of
concepts can destroy the value of a
study.
• Definitions are one way to reduce this
danger.
• Two types of definitions: 1.
Dictionary (theoretical) definition 2.
Operational definition.
 Dictionary definition
• Also called as
Conceptual/Theoretical/Nominal
• Concept is defined with a
synonym. Use other constructs to
explain a construct.
• How to define a “customer,”
“client,” “a satisfied worker”?
Operational Definition

• Working definition: stated in

terms of specific testing or
measurement criteria.
• Concrete indicators that can be
observed/measured. Specify
empirical indicators.
 We use both the
definitions in research
• Observational phenomenon 
Construct  Conceptual def.
 operational definition 
data.
 Variable
• A central idea in research.
• Variable is a concept that varies.
• Anything (concept/term) that can take on
differing or varying values. 2+ values.
Could be numerical.
• Variation can be in quantity, intensity,
amount, or type. Examples
• Production units, Absenteeism, Gender,
Religion, Motivation, Grade, Age.
 Continuous and
Discontinuous Variable
• Can the values be divided into
fractions?
• Discontinuous  Discrete
categories. Categorical.
Classificatory.
 Dependent and
Independent Variable
• DV  Outcome variable  effect
variable (Y). Variation in Y is
influenced by some other factor (s)
• IV  (X) that influences the Y.
• The variance in Y is accounted for
by X.
Explaining X and Y variables
X variable Y variable
• Presumed cause • Presumed effect
• Stimulus • Response
• Predicted from • Predicted to
• Antecedent • Consequence
• Manipulated • Measured outcome
• Predictor • Criterion
 Moderating Variable
• A variable that moderates the strength
of X – Y relationship.
• Strong relationship between the library
facility (X) and performance of
students (Y). Depends on the “interest
and inclination” of students (MV).
Modifies the original relationship.
• Relationship is contingent on another
variable.
 Intervening Variable
• Surfaces between the time X starts
influencing the Y. Time factor. In fact is a
function of X.
• IV  IVV  DV. IVV may be DV for IV in the first
place, then it is IV for DV.
• Marital status  social integration 
Suicide.
• 4-day workweek (IV) will lead to higher
productivity (DV) by increasing job
satisfaction (IVV).
Extraneous Variables
• Infinite number of EV exist that
may effect XY relationship.
Confounding factors.
• To be identified by the
researcher.
 Relationship of
Variables
• Relationship among variables. Logical.
• A statement concerned with the
theoretical relationship among
variables is a proposition.
• If the relationship refers to an
observable reality, then the proposition
may be testable  call it a hypothesis.
 Background
• Once variables identified
• Establish the relationship through
logical reasoning. Proposition.
• Proposition is a statement about
variables judged to be true.
 Definition
• Hypothesis is a testable
counterpart of proposition i.e. If
variables refer to empirical reality
then it could be testable. Therefore
• Hypothesis is a testable
proposition.
 Example –1
• Officers in my organization have
higher than average level of
commitment.
• How many variables in this
hypothesis?
• Can we test this hypothesis?
 Example 2
• Level of job commitment of the
Officers is associated with their
level of efficiency.
 Example –3
• Level of job commitment of the
Officers is positively
associated with their level of
efficiency.
 Example – 4
• The higher the level of job
commitment of Officers the
lower their level of
absenteeism.
i.Descriptive Hypothesis
• Also called univariate hypothesis:
Proposition that typically states
the existence, size, form, or
distribution of some variable. e.g.
• Majority of the students registered
in RM class are highly motivated.
ii. Relational Hypothesis
• Statement describing the
relationship between two or more
variables.
• Relationship can be non-
directional or directional
 a. Non-directional
relationship
• The nature of relationship is
not specified. Non-directional
relationship.
• Job satisfaction and motivation
are related.
 b. Directional
relationship
• Hypotheses are both relational and dirctional
• Direction of relationship specified. Use of words
like positive, negative, more than, less than.
• Hypotheses can be correrational or causal
 c. Correlational
Hypothesis
• Variables occur in some specified manner
without implying that one causes the
other. e.g.
• Level of job commitment of Officers is
positively associated with their level of
efficiency. Direction. Not causal
 d. Explanatory
Hypothesis
• Also called causal hypothesis.
• X and Y specified.
• X causes change in Y. e.g.
• High motivation causes high
efficiency.
 Different ways to
state hypothesis
• Hi motivation causes hi efficiency.
• Hi motivation leads to hi efficiency.
• Hi motivation and hi efficiency are +ly related
• Hi motivation influences hi efficiency.
• Hi motivation is associated with hi efficiency.
• Hi motivation produces hi efficiency.
• Hi motivation results in hi efficiency.
• If hi motivation then hi efficiency.
• Higher the motivation, higher the efficiency
 iii. Null Hypothesis
• No relationship between the variables /
• The relationship between the variables is
“zero”
• Null hypothesis is denoted as H0
• H0 = No relationship between X and Y /
• H0 = X and Y are independent of each
other.
• H0 is non directional.
 Use of Null Hypothesis
• Used for testing the research hypothesis
• Researchers give more importance to negative
evidence. No relationship rather than a
relationship i.e. Null hypothesis.
• Reject H0 and accept alternative
•
 iv. Alternative
Hypothesis
• It is alternative to H0.
• There is a perfect
relationship between
X and Y i.e. H1
 v. Research
Hypothesis
• This is the hypothesis
formulated by the researcher.
• Tells not only the relationship
but also the nature of
relationship between X and Y.
 The Role of Hypothesis
• It guides the direction of study
• It identifies facts that are relevant and
those that are not.
• It suggests which form of research
design is likely to be the most
appropriate.
• It provides framework for organizing
the conclusions of findings the
conclusions of findings.
The Characteristics of a
Testable Hypothesis
• Hypothesis must be conceptually clear.
• Hypothesis should have empirical
referents.
• Hypothesis must be specific.
• Hypothesis should be related to available
techniques of research.
• Hypothesis should be related to a body of
theory
Assumption
• Assumption is that:
- Knowledge accumulates.
- We learn from and build on
what others have done.
In review
• Researchers read other people’s
research.
• They learn, compare, replicate, or
critically appreciate the work by others.
1. To demonstrate a familiarity
with a body of knowledge and
establish credibility.
• Tells the reader that the researcher
knows the research in an area and
knows the major issues. i.e.
• Demonstrates the researcher’s
professional competence, ability,
and background.
 2. To know the path of prior
research and how the current
research project is linked to it
• Review outlines the direction, ability,
and background of research on a
question and shows the development
of knowledge.
• Places the research project in context
 makes a connection to a body of
knowledge.
 3. TO INTEGRATE AND
SUMMARIZE WHAT IS
KNOWN IN AREA
• Tells where prior studies agree,
disagree, where questions remain
unanswered.
• No reinvention of the wheel. No
wastage of effort.
• Indicates direction for future research
 4. To learn from others and
stimulate new ideas

• Researcher benefits from others

efforts.
• Ready made techniques. Also
difficulties, blind alleys. Replications
to overcome previous limitations.
5. Identification of variables

• None of the important variable

relevant to the study project is left
out.
 6. Help in developing
theoretical framework
• Ready made theoretical models for
research may be available.
• Previous studies provide evidence
for developing theoretical
argumentation for positing the
relationship among variables.
 7. Problem statement can
be made with precision

• Review provides clarity of

thought about the issue under
study.
Types of Reviews
• Reviews vary in scope and
depth.
• Each may have different goals
• Six types of reviews
 1. Self study reviews

• Increase the readers confidence

• Demonstrates researchers familiarity
with an idea.
• Not only others have credibility of the
researcher but also the researcher
develops self-confidence.
 2. Context reviews
• Place a specific project in the big
picture
• Focusing on a specific issue
providing background
• Linking the project with specific
body of knowledge and advancing
further.
 3. Historical reviews
• Trace the development of an issue
over time.
• How a particular issue or theory
has evolved.
 4. Theoretical reviews
• Compare how different theories address
an issue.
• Evaluate different theories for the
soundness of their assumptions, logical
consistency, and scope of explanation.
• Researcher may integrate two theories –
form a hybrid
5. Integrative reviews
• Summarizes what is known at a
point in time.
• Pulls together disparate
research reports.
 6. Methodological
reviews
• Point out how methodology varies
by study.
• Researcher evaluates the
methodological strengths of past
studies.
• Conflicting results may be the out
come of different research designs
 Where to find research literature
• Computer: on line systems.
• Scholarly journals.
• Books – containing reports of original research,
or collection of research articles. READERS or
Book of Readings.
• Dissertations.
• Government documents.
• Policy reports and presented papers.
• Bibliograhic indexes.
Define and refine a topic
• Have a good idea of your topic of interest
• Some clear research question to guide
pursuit of relevant material.
• “Crime” is too broad. Narrow it to: “type of
crime” or “economic inequality and crime”
• Review may help refocusing.
 Design a search
• Set parameters of your search:
• Type of review; how extensive.
• How to record the bibliographic
citations.
• Begin a file folder or computer
file.
Locate research reports
• Articles in scholarly journals.
• Locating the relevant articles is
difficult.
• Many academic field have “abstracts”
or “indexes” for scholarly literature.
• Look in reference section of library
• Also available on computer.
Computerized literature
search
• Researchers organize computerized
researches by author, by article title, by
subject, or by keyword.
• Keyword important term for topic that
is likely to be found in the title.
• Use 6-8 keywords in most computer
based searches and use several
synonyms
 Other material
• Scholarly books: have to use catalog
• Dissertations: A publication called
Dissertation Abstract International.
• Government Documents: Section in library.
• Policy reports and presented papers. Difficult
to locate. May be part of some bibliographies
of published studies, or abstracts, or indexes.
 What to record
• Write down all details of the reference (full
name of the authors, titles, journal name,
year, volume, issue, pages)
• Same about books and other publications.
• Follow some standard format Like APA/ASA
style.
• Refferencing electronic source: Ahmad, B. (2006).
Technology and immediacy of information. [on line]
Available http://www.bnet.act.com
 Write the review
• Read critically. Skepticism is the
norm of science. Don’t accept simply
because it is published. Evaluate.
• See whether introduction and the title
fit with the rest of the article.
• Methods and results sections are the
most critical.
How review will look like?
• Listing series of reports with a summary
of each is not a review.
• It reads a set of notes strung together.
• Organize common findings or arguments
together.
• Address the most important ideas first, to
logically link findings, and to note
discrepancies.
 Plagiarism
• In publications, presentations, writings
the researchers explicitly identify, credit,
and reference the author when they take
data or material verbatim from another
person’s written work, whether it is
published, unpublished, or electronically
available.
• Do not present others’ work as your own.
Even the ideas have to be acknowledged.
Ethical Issues in Research
• Management listening to Union members’
conversation in cafeteria through hidden
devices. Is there a moral question involved?
• A researcher discards damaging information
about an organization. Is this proper?
• These questions are philosophical questions.
 Ethical Issues
• Philosophical questions (No
agreement)
• Societal norms determine what is
right and what is wrong.
• Codes of behavior determine what
ought to be done.
Ethical behavior pervades
each step of the research
process – data collection,
data analysis, reporting,
and dissemination of
information
Rights of the respondents
• The right to be informed (informed consent:
the expressed or implied acknowledgment
waiving an individual’s right to privacy
when he/she agrees to participate in study)
• The obligation to be truthful
• Privacy
• Deception
 Obligations of the
researcher
• The purpose of research is research.
Do not misrepresent.
• Objectivity – also no
misrepresentation of research
findings
• Protecting the right to confidentiality
of the subject and clients.
Theoretical framework
• Theorizing the relationships
among several factors relevant
to the study.
• Can be called a conceptual
model.
 Conceptual Model
• Researcher elaborates the
relationship among the variables.
• Explains the logic underlying
these relationships.
• Describes the nature and
direction of the relationships
Theoretical foundation
• Build up the theory
• Deduce hypothesis
• Test the theory or part thereof.
Provides the roadmap
• To the formulation of appropriate
research question.
• To the formulation of research
hypothesis.
• To the advancement of
knowledge by testing theory.
Six basic components
of
Theoretical Framework
1. Make an inventory
of variables
• Identify the variables relevant
to the study.
• Search the literature, talk with
informants, and observe
2. Specify the direction
of relationship
• Theorize the direction of
relationship among the variable
 negative or positive
 3. Logic for the
proposed relationship
• Theorize the logical
relationship between different
variables.
• Argument could be built up on
the basis of previous studies,
observations, inferences.
 4. Make an inventory
of propositions
• Stipulation of logical relationship
between two variables ends up in a
proposition.
• Number of interrelationships resulting
in a number of propositions.
• Each proposition supported by
rigorous logic.
• Take stock of the propositions.
 5.Arrange propositions
sequentially
• Interlink the propositions and
arrange them sequentially.
• Axiomatic derivation.
• This will be theoretical framework
 6. Present schematic
diagram
• Helps in understanding the
theorized relationships among the
variables.
 Example 
Research Question
• Why middle class families
become small in size?
• Let us follow the guideline for
theoretical framework.
 1. Inventory of
relevant variables
• Education level of the couples, age at marriage,
working women, rationalism, exposure to mass
media of communication, accessibility to health
services, use of family planning practices,
parental aspirations about the education of their
children, shift to nuclear families, mobility
orientation, etc.
 2. Specify the direction of
relationship
• If you just make statements by using
variables, it can indicate the direction
of relationship. Look:
• Higher the education higher the age at
marriage. Higher the education of
women greater the chances of their
being career oriented. Higher the
education more the rationalism.
• Higher the education more the exposure
to mass media of communication. Higher
the education more the accessibility to
health services. Higher the education
more the exposure to mass media of
communication. Higher the education
more the accessibility to health services.
Higher the education greater the use of
family planning practices. Higher the
education of parent higher their aspiration
about the education of their children
 3. Explanation for the
proposed relationship
Higher the education higher the age at
marriage: Argumentation: For getting high
levels of education the youth spend about 16
years of their life in educational institutions.
Usually complete their schooling at age 22
years. Spend about 2-3 years for establishing
themselves in their careers. During the whole
of this period marriage is deferred. So with hi
education the age at marriage goes up.
 Compare
• By the time highly educated youth decide to
marry they are 25yrs.
• Compare marriage at age 25 yrs with
marriage at age 16 yrs.
• With this higher age at marriage there is a
reduction in reproductive period of women.
• Many of these women may be career
women. Should they spend time to raise the
children or to pursue the career. Rational
decisions about the use of contraceptives.
Family limitation is the option.
 4. Inventory of
propositions
• The relationships specified
under item 2 can be examples
of propositions. Formulate
additional propositions by
using other combinations of
variables.
5. Arrange propositions
sequentially
• Higher the education, more the rationalism.
Higher the rationalism, more the investment
in career achievement. Greater the investment
in career achievement, higher the age at
marriage. Higher the age at marriage, shorter
the reproductive period.
• Shorter the reproductive period, smaller the
size of family.
• Use of contraceptive may be an intervening
variable
PROBLEM
DEFINITION
AND
RESEARCH
PROPOSAL
 First step
in research process
• No formula for the selection of topic.
• Start with a broad area of interest.
• Interest from a variety of sources:
• Personal experiences.
• Mass media.
• Developments in knowledge.
• Solving problems (Org., family).
• Hot issues of daily life.
Broad area of interest
• Family Trends in Pakistani
family
• Population Aging population
• Labor Unions Protecting the
rights of members.
• Marketing TV commercials
 Narrowing the topic
• Try to get background
information from different
sources.
• For example
 Examine the literature
• Published articles are excellent sources of
ideas for R. questions.
• Already specific and suggest research
questions. Focus on the following:
• a. Explore unexpected findings discovered in
previous research.
• b. Follow future research suggestions.
• c. Apply existing theory to new topic.
• d. Challenge the previous findings.
• E. Specify the intervening process
 Talk over ideas
with others
• Share ideas with knowledgeable
people
• Seek out those who differ. Discuss
possible research questions with
them.
 Apply to a specific
context
• Focus onto a specific historical
period.
• Narrow the topic to a specific
society.
• Consider which subgroups are
involved – expected differences
 From research question
to hypotheses
• Tentative answers to questions –
identification of variable (Family, population,
labor unions)
• Argumentation – propositions
• Testable propositions – hypotheses
• Interrelationship of propositions –
framework
 Problem Definition
• From broad to specific concern
• Present problem statement in clear and precise manner.
Problem could be
• An existing business problem identified by the Manager
• Scope for future improvement
• Areas needing conceptual clarity
• Curiosity of the researcher
 Sponsored Researches
• Symptoms of issues identified – tip of the
iceberg – underlying factors to be identified.
• Management dilemmas to be translated into
research questions
• Terms of reference
• Some steps may not get emphasis.
• Management’s research decisions based on
the urgency of the study, time available,
existing information, and cost-benefit
equation.
 Research Proposal
• Document that presents a plan for a
project to reviewers for evaluation.
• Can be a supervised project or a
project proposed to funding agency.
• Convince the reviewers about the
capability of the researcher.
• For funded projects the researchers
need to show the track record of past
success.
 Research proposal
sections
• Introduction (background, objectives,
significance)
• Research design (data collection technique,
population, sample, tools, fieldwork, data
processing and analysis)
• Report writing
• Time schedule
• Research Team
• Budget
 Research Process
• Usually treated as sequentially
defined steps. Nevertheless:
• Completion of each step before
going to next is not required.
• Idea of sequence is useful for
developing a research project.
• Variation in the number of steps
 1. Broad Problem Area
• General area of study (Organization).
• Specific issues that need to be
focused in the broad area.
• Problem currently existing in an
organization (sexual harassment).
• Areas that a manager believes to be
improved (policy improvement).
• Conceptual issue (harassment).
• Research questions to be answered
empirically.
 2. Preliminary
Data Collection
• Part of exploratory research
• Search for published data and
studies.
• Seek out informants
• Focus group discussions
 3. Problem Definition
• Translate the broad issue into a
research question.
• Management dilemma into
management question – symptoms of
the problem. Productivity decline.
Demand for daycare facilities
 4. Theoretical
Framework
• Consultation – identification of
variables, make logical
relationships, delineation of
framework.
• Components of theoretical
framework already discussed.
 5. Generation of
Hypotheses
• Derive the hypotheses from the
theoretical framework.
 6. Research Design
• Master plan for collecting and
analyzing the data.
• Specify the sources of information and
the techniques to be used in the study.
• Broadly 6 methods – surveys,
experiments, observations,
communication analysis, case study,
focus group discussions. Secondary
data analysis.
Determine the method
to be used
• Objectives of the research, data
sources, urgency of the
decision, cost of obtaining the
data will determine the method.
 Surveys
• The most common method of generating
primary data.
• Sample of people using questionnaire.
• Questionnaire an essential tool.
• Contact the respondents in person, by
telephone, by mail, on the internet.
• Each of these techniques has advantages
and disadvantages.
• Choose the most appropriate one.
 Experiments
• Establish cause and effect
relationship.
• Manipulating X affects on Y.
• Productivity affected by rewards.
• Controlled conditions – isolate causal
factors – control external factors.
• Lab experiments and field
experiments.
 Observation
techniques
• Non participant and participant.
 Communication analysis
• Analyzing the content of text.
• Content refers to words, meanings, pictures,
symbols, ideas, themes, messages.
• Text is anything written, visual, or spoken
• Books, newspapers, advertisements,
speeches, official documents, photographs,
films, articles of clothing, works of art.
 Case study
• In-depth analysis of a unit.
• Clinical analysis in retrospect.
• Multiple sources of information
– history, consulting written
records.
 Focus group
discussions
• Discussion of an issue by 6-12
persons assisted by a moderator.
• Useful in exploratory research.
Supplements the quantitative
information.
 No one method is best

• Researchers evaluate and

select the most appropriate
method.
7. Data collection, data
processing and analysis
• Integral part of research design.
• Variety of ways. Field and lab.
• Interviews, questionnaires,
observation.
• Data processing – editing, coding,
computer entries, tabulation.
 8. Testing the
Hypotheses
• Interpretation of data.
• Testing the hypotheses.
• Finding solutions to problems of
organization or society.
• Making recommendations
 9. Report Writing
• Communicating the research findings.
• Report is technical. Managers are
selective readers. Interested only in
recommendations.
• Historical document.
• Academic purpose – dissertations.
Specific format. Writing of research
papers
 The Research Process
OBSERVATION
Broad area of
research interest
identified DATA
THEORETICAL COLLECTION
FRAMEWORK Generation of ANALYSIS
hypothesis SCIENTIFIC AND
PROBLEM
RESEARCH INTERPRETAT
DEFINITION
Variables clearly DESIGN IOND
Research
problem Identified and
delineated labeled
DEDUCTION
Hypotheses
substantiated?
Research
PRELIMINARY question
DATA GATHERING Yes answers?
Interviewing
Literature survey
No Report Report Managerial
Writing presentation Decision
Making
 Goal
• To ensure that no one is
harmed or suffers adverse
consequences from research
activities.
 Unethical activities
• Violating nondisclosure agreements.
• Breaking respondent confidentiality.
• Misrepresenting results.
• Deceiving people.
• Invoicing irregularities.
• Avoiding legal liability.
 Ethical Issues
• Remain to be issues.
• Local norms suggest what ought to
be done under the given
circumstances.
• Codes of ethics developed to guide
researchers and sponsors.
• Review Boards and peer groups help
sorting out ethical dilemmas.
 Anticipate ethical dilemmas
• Adjust the design, procedures, and
protocols accordingly.
• Research ethics require personal
integrity of the researcher, the
project manager, and research
sponsor.
 Parties in Research
• Mostly three parties:
• The researcher
• The sponsoring client (user)
• The respondent (subject)
• Interaction requires ethical questions.
• Each party expects certain rights and
feels certain obligations.
Interaction of rights and obligations of parties in research

Obligations Obligations Obligations

Subject Researcher Client

Rights Rights Rights

Ethical Treatment of
Participants
 Rights of the participants
• No physical harm, discomfort, pain,
embarrassment, or loss of privacy.
• Follow three guidelines:
• 1. Explain study benefits.
• 2. Explain respondent rights and
protections.
• 3. Obtain informed consent.
 Benefits
• Discuss the study’s benefits.
• Can be part of establishing rapport.
• Further inducements to participate.
Should not be used as coercive
measure.
• Note that sometime actual purpose is
concealed jut to avoid the bias. This
deception.
 Deception
• Truth is fully compromised. Debatable
• Two reasons for deception:
• (1) To prevent biasing. (2) To protect the
confidentiality of the third party.
• The cost and benefits of deception to be
balanced. More benefits – scientific,
educational, or applied value.
• Respondents must have given informed
consent.
 Informed consent
• Disclosing
Disclosingfullyfullythe
theprocedures
procedures ofof
the study
the study
prior
prior to
to requesting
requestingtotoproceed
proceed with
withthe study.
the
study.
• Exceptions for children. Parents to sign.
• How
Exceptions for children. Oral
about non-literates? Parents to sign.
consent.
• Types of limits
How about about confidentiality,
non-literates? or of any
Oral consent.
• harm
Typestoofbelimits
explained.
about confidentiality, or of
• In
anycase
harmof intentional deception, debriefing is
to be explained.
necessary
• In case of intentional deception, debriefing
is necessary
 Debriefing
• After data collection:
• Explanation of any deception.
• Description of the hypothesis, goal or
purpose of the study.
• Post study sharing of the results.
• Post study follow-up medical or
psychological attention.
• A goodwill gesture. (experiments)
 Right to Privacy
• Help retain the validity of research
• Protect the respondents through
confidentiality of the survey
answers.
• One has the right to refuse to be
interviewed, or to refuse to answer
any question in interview.
• One can withdraw from the
experiment
Several ways to protect the
confidentiality
• Obtaining signed nondisclosure
documents.
• Restricting access to respondent’s
identification
• Revealing respondent information only
with written consent.
• Restricting access to data instruments
where the respondent is identified.
• Nondisclosure of data subsets.
 The obligation
• Once agreeing to participate,
the subject should provide
truthful answers. Honest
cooperation is the main
obligation.
Confidentiality of Sponsor
• Several types of confidentiality:
• Sponsor nondisclosure (due to
sensitive nature of the research. No
influence of the sponsor)
• Purpose nondisclosure (new idea to be
hidden from competitors).
• Findings nondisclosure (findings may
not go to any interested parties)
 Right to quality research
• Includes:
• Providing research design
appropriate for the research question.
• Maximizing the sponsor’s value for
the resources expended.
• Providing data handling and reporting
techniques appropriate for data
collected.
 Sponsor’s Ethics
• Unethical demands. Compliance unethical 
• Violating respondent confidentiality.
• Changing data or creating false data to meet the
desired objective.
• Changing data presentation or interpretation.
• Interpreting data from a biased perspective.
• Omitting sections of data analysis and
conclusions.
• Making recommendations beyond the scope of
data collected.
Researchers and
Team Members
Ethics
 Safety
• Project design should provide
of all interviewers, surveyors,
experimenters, or observers.
• Ensure researcher’s right to
safety.
 Ethical Behavior of Assistants

• Ethical compliance by
Assistants.
• Carry out the sampling plan,
interview or observe
respondents without bias,
accurately record data.
Protection of Anonymity
• Protect the confidentiality of
the sponsor’s information and
anonymity of the respondents.
• Sign a confidentiality and
nondisclosure statement.
 Professional Standards
• Many Corporations, Professional
Associations, and Universities have
code of ethics.
• The code of ethics to be enforced.
Professional standards of ethics to
be observed.
 Concept
• A generalized idea about a class of objects,
attributes, occurrences, or processes
• A sign, symbol, letter, word, name, number
that stand for observable reality
• A construct that stands for phenomenon but
not the phenomenon itself
• For purposes of research the phenomenon is
measured
 Measurement
• Measurement is a daily routine : casual
measurement or by using a standard.
• Established yardstick verifies the
height, weight, or another feature of a
physical object.
• Also measure the qualities of objects
 attitude, perception, motivation.
• In research measurement is rigorous.
 In dictionary sense:
• To measure is to discover the
extent, dimensions, quantity, or
capacity of something,
especially by comparison with
a standard.
 In research
• Measurement is a process of
ascertaining the extent or quantity of
the concept, idea, or construct
• Follow some measurement procedure.
Come up with empirical data that
represent the concept.
• Use some existing yardstick, standard
or develop your own.
 What is measured?
• Variable  can be objects or properties.
• Objects include things
• Properties are characteristics of objects.
• Person’s properties: physical,
psychological, social.
• Researchers to measure through
indicators.
• Easier to measure visible properties than
invisible. Creates measurement issues.
 Example
• Studying people attending an auto
show of year’s new models.
• Just male to female ratio of
attendees.
• Record F for female and M for
male. Or use some other symbol
like 0 and 1 and decide which
number stands for which group
 Example (cont.)
• Researchers might also want to measure
the desirability of the styling of new Espace
van.
• They interview a sample of visitors and get
their opinions.
• Assign numbers to their responses, with a
different mapping rule like:
• What is your opinion of the styling of the
Espace van? Opinion rating scale.
• V. desirable 5__4__3__2__1 V. undesirable
• This is a form of measurement.
 Measurement issues
• Easier to measure physiological
phenomena – height, weight.
• Difficult to measure subjective
attributes – feelings, attitudes, ideology,
deviance, perceptions.
• Devise techniques to measure the
“invisible” – Teacher morale.
• Empirical reality  create instrument
for its measurement
 Measurement in
quantitative research
• Designing precise ways to measure
variables is vital step at the planning stage.
• Develop techniques that can produce
quantitative data. Move from abstract ideas
to produce precise numerical information.
• Contemplate and reflect on concepts prior
to the gathering of data. Qualitative
researchers mostly do it during data
collection.
Quantitative measurement
• Consists of assigning numbers to empirical
events in compliance with set rules. Hence:
• Measurement is a three part process:
• a. Selecting empirical reality – concept
• b. Developing a set of mapping rules: a
scheme for assigning number or symbols
to represent aspects of the event being
measured.
• c. Applying the mapping rules to each
observation of that event – data collection
Parts of Measurement Processes
• Researcher takes the concept,
idea, or construct and develops
a measure.
• Use two processes:
• a. Conceptualization
• b. Operationalization
 a. Conceptualization
• Taking the construct and refining it by
giving it a conceptual or theoretical
definition. Definition in abstract terms.
• Single concept – could be many definitions;
depending upon the theoretical frameworks
used. Social class
• A good definition has one clear, explicit,
and specific definition. Morale
• Prior to measurement we need a concept.
Should know what you are looking for.
 Teacher morale
• What is morale? Is it a variable?
• Develop a conceptual definition.
• Look at everyday understanding of
morale. How people feel about things?
• Look in the dictionary: confidence, spirit,
zeal, mental condition toward something.
• Look into review of literature
 Teacher morale
• Morale involves a feeling toward something
else; a person has morale with regard to
something. “somethings”
• ‘Some things’ toward which teachers have
feelings  Some things could be:
• Students, parents, pay, the school
administration, other teachers, the
profession of teaching.
 Dimensions of construct
• Are there several kinds of teacher morale or
are all these ‘somethings’ different aspects
of one construct (morale)?
• A single general feeling with different parts
– call them as dimensions.
• Unit of analysis will determine – construct
will apply to individual or group.
• Also who is a teacher?
 b. Operationalization
• Linking conceptual definition to a specific set of measurement
procedures.
• Specifies what the researcher must do to measure the concept
under investigation
• What specific activities to be undertaken for measuring the
concept?
• Look at the behavioral dimensions, translate into observable
elements, ask questions, and develop index of measurement.
Example.