Chapter 2

STRUCTURAL CLAY PRODUCTS

 Contents

2.11 Testing of Bricks 2.23 Porcelain

2.1 Introduction
2.12 Defects of Bricks 2.24 Stoneware
2.2 Clay and its Classifications 2.13 Heavy Duty Burnt Clay 2.25 Earthenware
2.3 Physical Properties of Clays Bricks (IS: 2180) 2.26 Majolica
2.4 Bricks 2.14 Burnt Clay Perforated 2.27 Glazing
Bricks (IS : 2222) 2.28 Application
2.5 Classification of Bricks
2.15 Burnt Clay Paving Bricks of Clay Products
2.6 Characteristics of Good Brick (IS : 3583)
2.7 Ingredients of Good Brick Earth 2.16 Burnt Clay Soling Bricks
(IS : 5779)
2.8 Harmful Substances in Brick Earth
2.17 Burnt Clay Hollow Blocks
2.9 Manufacturing of Bricks
(IS : 3952)
2.10 Different Forms of Bricks 2.18 Burnt Clay Jallis (IS: 7556)
2.19 Clay Tiles
2.21 Fire-clay Bricks or
Refractory Bricks
2.22 Terracotta
2.1Introduction
 Clay products are one of the most important classes of
structural materials.
 Clay blended with quartz, sand, chamotte (refractory
clay burned at 1000–1400°C and crushed), slag, sawdust
and pulverized coal.
 Fabricated by moulding, drying and burning a clay mass.
 Higher the bulk specific gravity, the stronger is the clay
product. Bulk specific gravity of clay brick ranges from
1.6 to 2.5.
 Bricks, tiles, pipes, terracotta, earthenware, stoneware,
porcelain, and majolica are well recognized and
employed in building construction.
Clay and Its Classifications 2.2
 Purest clays consist mainly of kaolinite
(2SiO2.Al2O3.2H2O) with small quantities of minerals
such as quartz, mica, feldspar, calcite, magnesite, etc.
By their origin, clays are subdivided as residual and
transported clays.
 Residual clays, known as Kaolin or China clay, are formed
from the decay of underlying rocks and are used for
making pottery.
 The transported or sedimentary clays result from the
action of weathering agencies. These are more disperse,
contain impurities, and free from large particles of mother
rocks.
 Clays are classified as refractory, high melting and low melting clays.
 Highmelting clays have high refractoriness (1350–1580°C) and contain small
amount of impurities such as quartz, feldspar, mica, calcium carbonate and
magnesium carbonate.
 Lowmelting clays have refractoriness less than 1350°C and have varying
compositions. These are used to manufacture bricks, blocks, tiles, etc.
 Admixtures are added to clay to improve its properties, if desired.
 Burning temperature of clay items can be reduced by blending clay with
fluxes such as feldspar, iron bearing ores, etc. Plasticity of moulding
mass may be increased by adding surfactants such as sulphite-sodium
vinasse (0.1–0.3%).
Physical Properties of Clay 2.3
 Plasticity, tensile strength, texture, shrinkage, porosity, fusibility and
colour after burning are the physical properties which are the most
important in determining the value of clay. Knowledge of these
properties is of more benefit in judging the quality of the raw material
than a chemical analysis.
 Plasticity - the quality of being easily shaped or molded.
 Tensile strength - the resistance of a material to breaking under tension.
 Texture - the feel, appearance, or consistency of a surface or a substance.
 Shrinkage - describe the various aspects of volume changes in concrete due to loss
of moisture at different stages due to different reasons.
 Porosity - meant the ratio if the volume of pore space to the dry volume.
 Fusibility - the ease with which a material will melt.
 Bricks 2.4
 One of the oldest building material brick continues to be a most popular and
leading construction material because of being cheap, durable and easy to
handle and work with.
 A brick is rectangular in shape and of size that can be conveniently handled with
one hand. Brick may be made of burnt clay or mixture of sand and lime or of
Portland cement concrete. Clay bricks are commonly used since these are
economical and easily available.

Length of brick = 2 × width of brick + thickness of mortar

Height of brick = width of brick
Size of a standard brick (also known as modular brick)
should be 19 × 9 × 9 cm and 19 × 9 × 4 cm.
When placed in masonry the 19 × 9 × 9 cm brick with
mortar becomes 20 × 10 × 10 cm.
Classification of Bricks 2.5
 First class Bricks
 1. These are thoroughly burnt and are of deep red, cherry or copper colour.
 2. The surface should be smooth and rectangular, with parallel, sharp and
straight edges and square corners.
 3. These should be free from flaws, cracks and stones.
 4. These should have uniform texture.
 5.No impression should be left on the brick when a scratch is made by a finger
nail.
 6. The fractured surface of the brick should not show lumps of lime.
 7.A metallic or ringing sound should come when two bricks are struck against
each other.
 8.Water absorption should be 12–15% of its dry weight when immersed in cold
water for 24 hours.
 9. The crushing strength of the brick should not be less than 10 N/mm2. This
limit varies with different Government organizations around the country.
 Second class bricks are supposed to have the same
requirements as the first class ones but with exceptions.
 Third class bricks are underburnt.
 Fourth class bricks are overburnt and badly distorted in
shape and size and are brittle in nature.
BASIS OF USE
Common Bricks – multi-purpose
Facing Bricks – good appearance
Engineering Bricks – used for all load bearing structures
BASIS OF FINISH
Sand-faced Bricks – textured surface with sand
Rustic Bricks – mechanically textured finish
BASIS OF MANUFACTURE
Hand-made – hand-moulded
Machine-made – mechanically arranged
BASIS OF BURNING
Pale Bricks – underburnt, outer portion
Body Bricks – well-burnt, center portion
Arch Bricks(Clinker Bricks) – over burnt, inner portion
BASIS OF TYPES
Solid - holes not exceeding 25% of volume are permitted; frogs not
exceeding 20% are permitted
Perforated – small holes may exceed 25% volume
Hollow – holes not too small, may exceed 25% volume
Cellular – holes closed on one end exceeds 20% volume
Characteristics of Good Bricks 2.6
 Size and Shape – uniform, rectangular, parallel sides, sharp edges
 Color – uniform in deep red or cherry color
 Texture and Compactness – not too smooth, must not be fractured
 Hardness and Soundness - when scratched by a finger nail no
impression is made. When two bricks are struck together, a metallic
sound should be produced.
 Water Absorption – must not exceed 20% of its dry weight
 Crushing Strength – not less than 10 N/mm^2
 Brick Earth - should be free from stones, kankars, organic matter,
saltpetre, etc.
 Ingredients of Good Brick Earth 2.7

Silica – retains shape

Alumina - absorbs water and renders the clay plastic.
Lime - normally constitutes less than 10 per cent of clay.
Magnesia - it causes the clay to soften at slower rate than in most case is
lime and reduces
warping.
Iron - constituting less than 7 per cent of clay.
Harmful Substances on Brick 2.8
Earth
Manufacturing of Bricks 2.9
 Fly Ash

 Sandy Loam

 Rice Husk Ash

 Basalt Stone Dust
 Tempering
- consists of kneading the earth with feet
so as to make the mass stiff and
plastics (by plasticity, we mean the
property which wet clay has of being
permanently deformed
without cracking). It should preferably be
carried out by storing the soil in a cool
place in layers
of about 30 cm thickness for not less than
36 hours. This will ensure homogeneity in
the mass
of clay for subsequent processing. For
manufacturing good brick, tempering is
done in pug
mills and the operation is called pugging.
Moulding

Hand Moulding

Ground Moulding
Table Moulding

Machine Moulding (2 Ways)

Dry-Press Method
Drying
- is to remove the moistre to control
the shrinkage and save fuel and time during
burning.
The drying shrinkage is dependent upon pore
spaces
within the clay and the mixing water. The
addition
of sand or ground burnt clay reduces shrinkage,
increases porosity and facilities drying. The
moisture
content is brought down to about 3 per cent
under
exposed conditions within three to four days.
Thus,
the strength of the green bricks is increased
and the
bricks can be handled safely.
 Burning
 3 Main Stages
• Dehydration (400-650°C) - This is also known as water smoking stage. During dehydration, (1)
the water which has been retained in the pores of the clay after drying is driven off and the clay
loses its plasticity, (2) some of the carbonaceous matter is burnt, (3) a portion of Sulphur is
distilled from pyrites. (4) hydrous minerals like ferric hydroxide are dehydrated, and (5) the
carbonate minerals are more or less decarbonized. Too rapid heating causes cracking or bursting
of the bricks.
• Oxidation Period (650-900°C) - (1) remainder of carbon is eliminated and, (2) the ferrous iron is
oxidized to the ferric form.
• Vitrification - the temperature ranges from 900–1100°C for low melting clay and 1000–1250°C
for high melting clay. Great care is required in cooling the bricks below the cherry red heat in
order to avoid checking and cracking.
 Burning in Clamp
or Pazawah
A typical clamp is shown in Fig. 2.9. The
bricks and fuel are
placed in alternate layers. The amount of fuel
is reduced successively in the top layers.
Each
brick tier consists of 4–5 layers of bricks.
Some space is left between bricks for free
Kiln Burning circulation
- The kiln used for burning bricks may be
of hot gasses. After 30 per cent loading of the
underground, e.g. Bull’s trench kiln or
over ground, e.g. Hoffman’s kiln. These
clamp, the fuel in the lowest layer is fired and
may be rectangular, circular or oval in the
shape. remaining loading of bricks and fuel is carried
out hurriedly. The top and sides of the clamp
are
plastered with mud. Then a coat of cowdung
is given, which prevents the escape of heat.
The
Different Forms of Bricks 2.10
Testing of Bricks 2.11
Dimension Test (IS: 1077)
The tolerances (Section 2.5) on the sizes of
bricks
are fixed by giving maximum and minimum
dimensions, not on individual bricks but on
batches
of 20 bricks chosen at random.

It follows from this method of measurement

that batches are likely to contain, bricks
outside the prescribed limit of tolerance.
Such lots should be rejected to avoid
complaints about the variation of perpends.
Water Absorption Test (IS: 3495(Part II))
Water absorption does not necessarily indicate the behavior of a brick in weathering. Low
absorption (< 7 %) usually indicates a high resistance to damage by freezing, although some
type of bricks of much higher absorption may also be frost resistance.
The durability of a brick may be tested by frost action, i.e., by alternate wetting and drying.
The absorption test has long been considered a measure of durability, although the basis for
this assumption is questionable. Too rapid withdrawal of water from the mortar by the
brick produces a weak bond. The rate at which a brick absorbs water, frequently called its
suction rate, maybe measured by immersing one face of the brick in water. The one minute
water uptake (initial rate of absorprion) is taken as the suction rate. For long periods of
immersion in theis test, the total wieght of water absorbed per unit area,

Where, A is the water absorption coefficient

and t is the time elapsed in the test.
24HRS IMMERSION COLD WATER DRY TEST
Dry bricks are put in an oven at a temperature of 105°
to 115°C till these attain constant mass. The weight (W1) of the bricks is recorded after cooling
them to room temperature. The bricks are then immersed in water at a temperature of 27° ± 2°C
for 24 hours. The specimens are then taken out of water and wiped with a damp cloth. Three
minutes, thereafter it is weighed again and recorded as W2.

5HRS BOILING WATER TEST

The weight of the oven dried bricks (W1) is recorded as above. Then the specimen is
immersed in the water and boiled for five hours, followed by cooling down to 27° ± 2°C by
natural loss of heat within 16–19 hours. The specimen is taken out of water and wiped with a
damp cloth and the weight is recorded as W3.
Compressive Strength Test (IS:3495 (PartI))
The crushing affords a basis for comparing the quality of bricks but is of little
value in determining the strength of a masonry wall, since the latter depends
primarily on the strength of mortar.
It is both unnecessary and uneconomical to insist that every bricks is above a
certain strength.

Warpage Test (IS:3495 (PartIV))

Warpage of the brick is measured with the help of a flat steel or glass surface and
measuring ruler graduated in 0.5 mm divisions or wedge of steel 60 × 15 × 15 mm
(Fig. 2.15).
Efflorescence Test (IS: 3495 (PartIII))
The ends of the brick are kept in a 150 mm diameter porcelain or glass dish containing
25 mm depth of water at room temperature (20°–30°C) till the entire water is absorbed or
evaporated.
Classifications
1. Nil — When the deposit of efflorescence is imperceptible.
2. Slight — When the deposit of efflorescence does not cover more than 10 per
cent of the exposed area of the brick.
3. Moderate — When the deposit of efflorescence is more than 10 per cent but
less than 50% of the exposed area of the brick.
4. Heavy — When the deposit of efflorescence is more than 50 per cent but the
deposits do not powder or flake away the brick surface.
5. Serious — When the deposits are heavy and powder or flake away the brick
surface.
Defects on Bricks 2.12
 Over-burning bricks
 Under-burning bricks
 Bloating
 Black Core
 Efflorescence
 Chuffs
 Checks or Cracks
 Spots
 Blisters
 Laminations
Heavy Duty Burnt Clay Bricks 2.13
(IS: 2180)
Clay Tiles 2.19
 Tiles are thin slabs of low melting clays used for various purposes
in engineering constructions. These give a very pleasing
appearance and good service properties. Roofing tiles, flooring
tiles, wall tiles and partition tiles are some of the examples.
 Manufacturing
 Tiles are made in the same manner as bricks, but are thinner and lighter, so
require greater care. These are manufactured from a clay mass with or
without admixtures of coloring impurities by moulding and subsequent
burning until baked, up to about 1300 °C. The clay should be highly plastic
with lean admixtures and fusing agents to lower the melting point. These are
moulded in machines of the auger or plunger type and are commonly burned
in continues kilns.
 Specifications
 The flat terracing tiles may be hand moulded or machine moulded. Their specifications are
given in Table 2.5. Hand moulded tile is marked with symbol H and the machine moulded tile
with symbol M.
 Clay Ridge and Ceiling Tiles
 The clay ridge and ceiling tiles (Fig. 2.17) are grouped as class AA and also A
and should fulfill the following requirements.

 Flooring Tiles
 The flooring tiles are of three classes–class 1, class 2 and class 3. These are
available in following sizes.
150 × 150 × 15mm,
150 × 150 × 20mm,
200 × 200 × 20mm,
200 × 200 × 25mm,
250 × 250 × 30mm
 Characteristics
 uniform texture
 accurate size and shape.
 free from defects like flaws, cracks and non-uniform burning.
 water absorption (less than 15 per cent).
 resistant to atmosphere and dampness.
 durability
 Uses
 They are used as roofing material for low cost houses in big cities and also used to
give a pleasing look from architectural point of view.
 Testing of Tiles
 Transverse Strength
 Water Absorption
 Impact
 Breaking Strength

Fire Clay or Refractory Clay 2.20

 Fire-clay is a term, loosely applied, to include those sedimentary or residual
clays which vitrify at a very high temperature and which, when so burnt,
possess great resistance to heat.
Fire Clay Bricks or Refractory 2.21
Bricks
 Properties
 The color is whitish yellow or light brown.
 The water absorption of fire-clay bricks varies from 4–10%
 The minimum average compressive strength of the bricks should be 3.5 N/mm^2.
 Uses - These are used for lining blast furnaces, ovens, kilns, boilers and chimneys.
 Acid Refractory Bricks
 Basic Refractory Bricks
 Neutral Refractory Bricks
Terracotta 2.22
 It is an Italian word, Terra means clay and Cotta means burnt.
Terracotta is refractory clay product and is used in ornamental parts
of buildings. The clay used for its manufacture should be of superior
quality and should have sufficient iron and alkaline matters.
Porcelain 2.23
 A high grade ceramic ware having white colour, zero water absorption and
glazed surfacewhich can be soft or hard, consists of finely dispersed clay,
kaolin, quartz and felspar, baked athigh temperature and covered with a
coloured or transparent glaze.
 Soft Porcelain - is made from white clay to which flint is added.
 Hard Porcelain - is made form china clay or kaolin with quartz and
felspar are added as filler.
 Stoneware 2.24
 A hard ceramic material resembling porcelain with a different color, usually grey or
brownish is made from refractory clay mixed with crushed pottery, stones and sand burned
at high temperatures and cooled slowly. The clay used for making stoneware consists of
about 75 percent silica and 25 per cent alumina. Iron oxide is added to give color.

 Characteristics
 Hard, compact, strong and durable material.
 Gives ringing sound when struck.
 Glazed stoneware becomes resistant to chemical and weathering action.
 Gives good finish and appearance.
 Uses
 Light sanitary wares, e.g. wash basins, water closets, etc.
 Drain pipes and fittings.
 Road paving materials.
 Flooring tiles and wall tiles in toilets and kitchens.
Earthenware 2.25
 These are made by burning the ordinary clay at low temperature and
cooling slowly. To check shrinkage, sand and crushed pottery are mixed
with clay. This also increases the toughness, hardness and strength of
the ware.
 Characteristics
 Soft, porous and weak.
 Glazed earthenware becomes resistant to weathering action.

Majolica 2.26
 It is Italian earthenware coated with an opaque white enamel,
ornamented with metallic color. It is manufactured from low-heat clays
to which up to 20 per cent calcium carbonate is added in the form of
chalk. Majolica has a microporous texture.
 Uses
 It is used in doorways, window casings, and facing tiles
Glazing 2.27
 Bricks, tiles, earthenwares and stonewares are glazed by an impervious
film to protect the surface from chemical attack and other weathering
agencies. The different types of glazing in use are as to follow.
 Transparent Glazing - It consists of throwing sodium chloride in the kiln when
burning is at peak (1200°–1300°C).
 Lead Glazing - Clay items are burned thoroughly and then dipped in a
solution of lead oxide and tin oxide. The particles of lead and tin adhere to
the surface of clay items.
 Opaque Glazing - This is also known as enameling. Borax, kaolin, chalk and
coloring matter is fired with total or a part of feldspar, flint, and lead oxide.
The resulting molten glass is poured into water to give shattered frit.
Application of Clay Products 2.28
 Wall materials
 Brick for special purposes
 Hollow clay products for floors
 Facade decoration
 Clay products for decoration
 Roof materials
 Acid-resistant lining items
 Sanitary Clay items
 Aggregate for concrete