ENERGY RESOURCES

What is Energy
Energy is the ability to do work
Energy comes in different forms:
Heat (thermal)
Light (radiant)
Motion (kinetic)
Electrical
Chemical
Nuclear energy
Gravitational

There are two types of energy:

Stored (potential) energy
Working (kinetic) energy
 Energy Scenario
 Fossil fuels (Petroleum, coal, Natural gas) are the major
sources of energy providing 79% of all commercial energy
in the world
 Solar, wind, geo-thermal energy and hydroelectricity make
up about 4-5% of our commercial energy
 Biomass fuels such as wood, peat, charcoal and manure
contribute about 9.5% of energy.
• Biomass is a major energy source for poor countries
providing 35% of their energy
• For poorer countries like Haiti, Bhutan and Malawi
biomass supplies more than 90% of the energy used for
heating and cooking.
 Energy Scenario

 Nuclear is the world's second largest source of low-carbon

power (30% of the total in 2016)
 Over 50 countries utilize nuclear energy in about 225
research reactors
 Nuclear energy now provides about 11% of the world's
electricity from about 450 power reactors
 About 60 more reactors are under construction, equivalent
to about 15% of existing capacity
 In 2017 nuclear plants supplied 2487 TWh of electricity
 Energy Consumption per Capita

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration

 Energy Units
 Different physical units to measure different types of
energy or fuels:
Barrels or gallons for liquid petroleum fuels (such as
gasoline, diesel fuel, and jet fuel) and biofuels (ethanol
and biodiesel)
Cubic feet for natural gas
Tons for coal (a short ton equals 2,000 pounds;
a metric ton equals about 2,205 pounds)
Kilowatt hours for electricity
To compare fuels with each other, we need to convert
their measurements to the same units. Some popular units for
comparing energy include British thermal units (Btu), barrels
of oil equivalent, metric tons of oil equivalent, metric tons of
coal equivalent, and terajoules
 Energy Units

 Btu, a measure of heat energy, is the most common unit

for comparing energy sources or fuels. Because energy used
in different countries comes from different places, Btu
content of fuels varies slightly from country to country.
A British thermal unit (Btu) is a measure of the heat
content of fuels or energy sources. It is the quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of one pound of liquid
water by 1 degree Fahrenheit at the temperature that water
has its greatest density.
 Btu Conversion Factors

Energy source/fuel Physical units and Btu

Electricity 1 kilowatthour = 3,412 Btu
Natural gas 1 cubic foot = 1,036 Btu
Motor gasoline 1 gallon = 120,333 Btu²
Diesel fuel 1 gallon = 137,381 Btu
Heating oil 1 gallon = 138,500 Btu
Propane 1 gallon = 91,333 Btu
Wood 1 cord = 20,000,000 Btu
 FUTURE OF ENERGY RESOURCES
With the present trends continuing, natural gas will be
available upto 2060 and petroleum will get exhausted much
before that.
Coal reserves would be just adequate for another 200 years.
 In future more dependence will be on solar energy, hydro-
electric energy, wind energy, geo thermal energy and energy
from wastes (biogas)
Prospects of nuclear power is doubtful because of concern for
safety and disposal of radioactive wastes which causes serious
environmental hazards.
World Electricity Production by Source 2017

                                                     
 Energy Production & Changing Energy Sources
 Between1970-2014, global average per capita energy
consumption has increased by approximately 45%

Biomass fuel (Fuel wood, crop

residues & animal waste)
Non-Commercial
Animal Energy
Energy Sources
Conventional Fossil Fuel (Coal, Petroleum & its
Non Renewable products, N. Gas, Surface water,
Commercial Nuclear Material)

Non-Conventional Solar, Geothermal, Wind

Renewable & Tidal waves
Conventional Energy Resources

 Coal
 Petroleum and its products
 Natural gas
 Nuclear material
 Coal
• Proven coal reserves of the country – 70 billion tonnes
• National demand as on 2018 – 550 million tonnes
• Domestic production is around 360 million tonnes
• Therefore, deficit of 190 tonnes and therefore dependence
on imports.
• Coal consumption pattern
• Power sector – 60 %
• Steel – 14 %
• Cement – 5 %
• Miscellaneous – 21 %
• Type of coals – Anthracite, Bituminous, Sub-bituminous
& Lignite
 Coal
• Anthracite contains 86%–97% carbon and has a heating
value that is slightly higher on average than bituminous
coal. The moisture content generally is less than 15 %.
Anthracite has a calorific values of around 9 kW/kG or
above.
• Bituminous coal contains 45%–86% carbon and has two
to three times the heating value of lignite. Bituminous coal
is the most common coal and has a moisture content less
than 20 %.  Bituminous coal was formed under high heat
and pressure. Bituminous coal has calorific values ranging
from 6.8 - 9 kW/kG approximately.
 Coal
• Sub-bituminous coal has a higher heating value than
lignite. Subbituminous coal typically contains 35%–45%
carbon, compared to 25%–35% for lignite. It contains 20-
30 % moisture. Subbitumnious coal has calorific values
ranging from 5 - 6.8 kW/kG approximately.
• Lignite is the lowest rank of coal and has the lowest
energy content. Lignite is crumbly and has high moisture
content (50% water by weight). Emits more pollution
than other coals. Lignite has a colorific value of less than 5
kw/kg approximately.
Typical Content of Coal
 Coal Technologies

Exploration
Mining
Preparation, Sorting and Cleaning
Storage
Transportation
Supply
• As solid fuel for Consumption
• Supply for Conversion to Coal Products
 Coal Conversion Processes
Transport,
Liquid Industry ,
Liquefaction
Fuels Chemicals

Heating

Combustion Heat Work

Coal
Electrical
Energy

Transport,
Industry ,
Gaseous Chemicals
Gasification Fuels
 Indian Scenario: Coal
More than 65% of India's electricity generation capacity
comes from thermal power plants, with 85% of the
country's thermal power generation being coal-based.

Figure: Primary Energy Consumption Matrix of Commercial Fuels

 Hurdles in Development in Coal Sector
Causes of lack of development in coal sector
 Slow development of sector
 Under utilization of mine capacity
 Low output per man-shift
 Delays in project implementation
 Power constraints
 Labour unrest
 Coal movement problems
 Falling quality
 Petroleum
• Petroleum: Petra (rock) + oleum (oil)
• It is a fossil fuel formed by the decomposition and
bacterial anaerobic reactions on buried vegetation and
animal masses under favorable temperatures and pressures
and marine surroundings over several million centuries.
• Oily bituminous liquid that may vary from colour less to
black
• Complex mixture of numerous hydrocarbons and a small
amount of different substances
 Principle Steps in the Route

• Geological Survey and Exploration of Oil and Natural Gas

• Drilling of Petroleum Wells and Gas Wells
• Production of Crude Oil and Natural Gas in Refineries
• Storage and Transport of Crude Oil and Natural Gas
• Refining of Crude Oil
• Storage of Petroleum Products
• Transportation of Petroleum Products
• Distribution of liquid petroleum and liquid/ gaseous
Petroleum Products
• Supply to Consumers
• Fractional distillation and processing results in petrol,
diesel and other products of commercial and energy
importance
• One million tonne of crude oil on fractional distillation
provides about 0.8 million tonnes of petroleum
• Percent composition
- 25% Petrol (C6-C12)
- 45-60% Diesel and kerosene (C6-C22)
- 15-20% Naphtha (C8-C30)
- 8-10% Fuel Oil (C30-C80)
- 2-5% Asphalt (C50-C100)
• India has thirty-five major fields onshore (primarily in
Assam and Gujarat) and four major offshore oil fields
(near Bombay, south of Pondicherry, and in the Palk
Strait)
• The oil field with the greatest output is Bombay High,
with 402,797 barrels per day production, about fifteen
times the amount produced by the next largest fields.
• Total reserves are estimated at 4.33 billion barrels.
- 40 % in transport sector and 60% in industrial sector
- more than half of the total consumption of petroleum is
being imported
 Natural Gas
• Natural gas is a fossil energy source.
• The largest component of natural gas is methane, a compound
with one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms (CH4). A cubic
foot of natural gas holds a lot of power, about 1,032 Btu.
• Natural gas also contains smaller amounts of natural gas liquids
and non-hydrocarbon gases, such as carbon dioxide and water
vapor. 
• Natural gas is the cleanest burning fossil fuel. When it burns,
natural gas produces mostly carbon dioxide, water vapor and
small amounts of nitrogen oxides.
 Natural Gas Resources in India
• Major sources - Gulf of Cambay (West Coast); Krishna-Godavari
Delta (East Coast), Bombay High
• Presently, about 65 mmm3 / day of natural gas is supplied to the
consumers.
• About 40% of NG is used for power generation, 28 % for fertilizer
and balance for other uses such as industrial, residential etc.
• Current and future trends - increase in natural gas consumption
from present 65 mmm3/day to 130 mmm3/day (as per 10th plan) -
double the consumption level in five years; & Vision 2025
document predicts consumption level to rise to 391 mmm3/day –
an increase by six fold
 Natural Gas Resources in India
• It is unlikely that indigenous production could reach anywhere near
130 mmm3/day- consumption level predicted in the 10th Plan.
• Expected increase in indigenous production to about 75 mmm3/day
leaving a gap of 55 mmm3/day.
• Obviously, the gap would need to be filled through imports.

• Looking yet further (year 2025), assuming that indigenous

production doubles itself, even then a big gap of about 260
mmm3/day would exist between demand and indigenous supply.
• There are basically only two options: Through additional discoveries
in the Indian basin and through imports by pipeline from Bangladesh,
Iran etc. or as LNG by tankers.
 Energy Efficiency
• The final electrical energy obtained is given by
• Ee = Ei * ɳ ----- (1)
• Ei – the amount of energy released from coal
combustion (joules)
• ɳ - is the efficiency of energy conversion process
• In addition transmission and distribution losses result
in further reduction given by:
• Ef = Ee * (1-Ltd) ---- (2)
• Ef - Electricity received at end user (Joules)
• Ltd – Fraction of electricity lost
• Hence the relation between initial energy
contained in coal and final electrical energy
received at end user is obtained by substituting
Eq. (1) in (2)
• Ef = Ei * ɳ * (1-Ltd) ---- (3)
Nuclear Energy

• Nuclear energy is derived from the binding force (the

“strong” force) that holds the nucleons (neutron and proton)
of the atomic nucleus together.
• The binding force per nucleon is greatest for elements in the
middle of the periodic table and is smallest for the lighter
and heavier elements.
• When lighter nuclei fuse together, energy is released; and
energy is also released when heavier nuclei undergo fission.
• Nuclear is the world's second largest source of low-carbon power
(29% of the total in 2017). 30
Nuclear Fission

31
Nuclear Fusion

32
 Nuclear Reactors
• Nuclear reactor, any of a class of devices that can initiate and
control a self-sustaining series of nuclear fissions. Nuclear
reactors are used as research tools, as systems for producing
radioactive isotopes, and most prominently as energy sources
for nuclear power plants.
• The first commercial scale nuclear power plant of 180-MW
capacity went into operation in 1956 at Calder Hall, England.
• The first nuclear-powered submarine, the Nautilus, was
launched in 1954. Submarine reactors produce steam that
drives a turbine, which in turn propels the submarine.
33
 Nuclear Reactors
• Nuclear energy now provides about 10% of the world's electricity
from about 450 power reactors. About 50 more reactors are under
construction, equivalent to about 15% of existing capacity.
• Over 50 countries utilise nuclear energy in about 225 research
reactors. In addition to research, these reactors are used for the
production of medical and industrial isotopes, as well as for
training.
• In 2018 nuclear plants supplied 2563 TWh of electricity, up from
2503 TWh in 2017. This is the sixth consecutive year that global
nuclear generation has risen, with output 217 TWh higher than in
2012. 34
 Core of Nuclear Reactor
Basic Components of core of
nuclear reactor: fuel rods, a
• The energy of a nuclear
moderator, control rods, and a
reactor is derived from coolant.
splitting a heavy nucleus,
such as 235U or 239Pu.
• In a nuclear reactor of a
power plant, the splitting of
the nucleus and sustaining
of the ensuing chain
reaction has to proceed in a
controlled fashion. 35
 Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

• Heat generated in the core is used to generated steam

• The steam runs a turbine just like a normal power plant
 Pressurized Water Reactor

 Water in the core heated top

315°C but is not turned into
steam due to high pressure in
the primary loop.

 Heat exchanger used to

transfer heat into secondary
loop where water is turned to
steam to power turbine.

 Steam used to power turbine

never comes directly in
contact with radioactive
materials.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy

Advantages Disadvantages
Base Load Energy Accidents Happen (Long term
devastating effects)
Enormous reserves of thorium Radioactive Waste
High energy density Nuclear plants have a limited
life
Alternative to fossil fuel power
plants
Sustainable
Lowering greenhouse gas
emissions (CO2 and others)
Increase of nuclear weapons & Nuclear terrorism

 Nuclear reactors, reprocessing units and fast breeder

reactors are associated with increased availability of
plutonium.
 Plutonium is used in making nuclear bombs
 Nuclear waste transportation activity is associated with
accident potential and danger of interception by
terrorists
 Reprocessing of nuclear waste is banned in USA.
 Nuclear power complexes must be heavily armed with
security forces and surveillance equipment.
 Nuclear Waste
 Most difficult kinds of waste to managed because it is highly
hazardous.
 According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
nuclear waste is sorted into six general categories.
o spent nuclear fuel from nuclear reactors,
o uranium mill tailings from mining and milling of uranium ore,
o high-level waste from spent nuclear fuel reprocessing,
o low-level waste,
o transuranic waste from defense programs, and
o naturally occurring and accelerator-produced radioactive
materials.
 Fate of Spent Fuel

There are two alternatives for spent fuel:

1. Reprocessing to recover the usable portion of it

2. Long-term storage and final disposal without reprocessing.
 Effects of Radiation Exposure
• When it is large doses of ‘ionizing’ alpha particles, beta
particles and gamma rays: this radiation can create DNA-
disrupting ions within the body possibly leading to damage
and mutation of cells.

• But only when radiation levels get to several hundred times

the background radiation level there is a threat to human
health.
 Comparing Uranium to Coal

*1 kg of uranium-235 will generate as much energy as 3,000 tons of coal without CO 2

emissions
Nuclear & Coal Power Plant Environmental Concerns
 EPA Emission Table

COAL OIL NATURAL NUCLEAR

GAS
Carbon
Dioxide 2249 1672 1135 0

Sulfur
Dioxide 13 12 0.1 0

Nitrogen
Oxide 6 4 1.7 0
 Nuclear Power in India
• India has 22 operable nuclear reactors, with a combined net
capacity of 6.2 GWe.
• In 2018, nuclear generated 3% of the country's electricity.

• The Indian government is committed to growing its nuclear

power capacity as part of its massive infrastructure development
programme. The government in 2010 set an ambitious target to
have 14.6 GWe nuclear capacity online by 2024.
• At the start of 2019 seven reactors were under construction in
India, with a combined capacity of 5.4 GWe.
 India's operating nuclear power reactors
MWe net
Reactor State Type Commercial operation Safeguards status*
(each)
Tarapur 1&2 Maharashtra GE BWR 150 1969 Item-specific, Oct 2009
Kaiga 1&2 Karnataka PHWR 202 1999, 2000 nil
Kaiga 3&4 Karnataka PHWR 202 2007, 2012 nil
Kakrapar 1&2 Gujarat PHWR 202 1993, 1995 December 2010 under
new agreement
Madras 1&2
(MAPS) Tamil Nadu PHWR 202 1984, 1986 nil

Narora 1&2 Uttar Pradesh PHWR 202 1991, 1992 From Jan 2015 under
new agreement
Rajasthan
Rajasthan Candu PHWR 90, 187 1973, 1981 Item-specific, Oct 2009
1&2
Rajasthan March 2010 under new
Rajasthan PHWR 202 1999, 2000
3&4 agreement
Rajasthan Oct 2009 under new
Rajasthan PHWR 202 Feb & April 2010
5&6 agreement
Tarapur 3&4 Maharashtra PHWR 490 2006, 2005 nil
Kudankulam Tamil Nadu PWR (VVER) 917 December 2014, April Item-specific, Oct 2009
1&2 2017
Total (22)     6219 MWe
 India's nuclear power reactors under construction

Commercial
Reactor Type MWe gross, Project Construction operation Safeguards
net (each) control start status
due
Kalpakkam
FBR 500, 470 Bhavini Oct 2004 2020? nil
PFBR
Kakrapar 3 PHWR 700, 630 NPCIL Nov 2010 2022  

Kakrapar 4 PHWR 700, 630 NPCIL March 2011 2022  

Rajasthan 7 PHWR 700, 630 NPCIL July 2011 2022  

Rajasthan 8 PHWR 700, 630 NPCIL Sept 2011 2022  

Kudankulam 3 PWR 1050, 917 NPCIL June 2017 2025  

Kudankulam 4 PWR 1050, 917 NPCIL October 2017 2026  

Total (7)   5400 MWe      

gross
 Renewable Energy
• Renewable Energy – “any sustainable energy source that comes

from natural environment.”

• Some Aspects of Renewable Energy

– It exists perpetually and is abundant in the environment

– Ready to be harnessed, inexhaustible

– It is a clean alternative to fossil fuels

– “energy that is derived from natural process that are

replenished constantly” -- defined by the RENEWABLE

ENERGY WORKING PARTY of the INTERNATIONAL 49

 India’s Need for Renewable Energy

• Limited electricity access to people at present

(around 80 % according World Bank’s latest report) more so in

rural areas, impeding the economic development.
• Global warming
• Resource scarcity – crude oil (according to International
Energy Agency above 90% imports by 2035)
• Inferior quality coal – low energy density
 Biomass as Energy Resource
Biomass is a plant/animal derived organic matter available on a
renewable basis.
In poorer countries, wood and other biomass fuels still provide upto
90% of all the energy used.
• Versatile fuel:
Can be stored & transported
Can be converted into high quality gaseous, liquid & solid fuels
&
electricity.
• If used sustainably, no net release of CO2.
 Biomass Conversion Processes
Biomass conversion process (bioconversion process) has several routes
depending upon temperature, pressure, micro-organisms utilized,
process and culture conditions. Routes are classified in following three
broad categories:
• Direct Combustion (Incineration)
•Thermochemical Conversion: carried out by following two processes
o Heating of biomass with limited air or oxygen
o Heating at high temperature and high pressure in presence of
steam or oxygen
•.Biochemical Conversion
o Anaerobic Digestion
o Fermentation
 Bioenergy Conversion

53
Boyle, Renewable Energy, Oxford University Press (2004)
 Resources Types of Biomass

• Corn

• Soybean
• Bagasse
• Poplar

• Wood chips
• Municipal solid
waste

54
 Biomass Direct Combustion

55
Boyle, Renewable Energy, Oxford University Press (2004)
 Heat Energy Content

56
Boyle, Renewable Energy, Oxford University Press (2004)
 MSW Power Plant

57
Boyle, Renewable Energy, Oxford University Press (2004)
 Gasification

• Biomass heated with no oxygen

• temperature range of 900-3,000°F (480-1,650°C)

• Gasifies to mixture of CO and H2

– Called “Syngas” for synthetic gas

• Mixes easily with oxygen
• Burned in turbines to generate electricity

– Like natural gas

• Can easily be converted to other fuels, chemicals, and valuable
materials
58
 Pyrolysis

• Heat bio-material under pressure

– 500-1300 ºC (900-2400 ºF)

– 50-150 atmospheres
– Absence of air/ Carefully controlled air supply
• Up to 75% of biomass converted to liquid

• Tested for use in engines, turbines, boilers

• Currently experimental

59
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pyrolysis.html
 Pyrolysis Schematic

60
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pyrolysis.html
Biomass Energy for India
• Under Gasification programme, 12 Biomass Gasifier plants  have
been installed for generating thermal energy. These Gasifiers are up
to a capacity 500 KW .
• Success Stories
• 22MW bagasse-based cogeneration project at Shamanur Sugars,
Karnataka – exports 18 MW to Govt. Elec. Board
• Totally indigenous project
• Employment and Economic benefit to area
• 6 MW biomass based power project at Miryalguda, And. Pradesh
– uses rice husk and Prosopis juliflora
• 500 KW Biomass gasifier plant at Sunderbans, W.Bengal – 2
million people getting electricity from 10 lakh units electricity
generated
• Strictly run by cooperative system with no govt. intervention
 Anaerobic Digestion
• It is a type of biochemical conversion involving microbial
digestion of biomass.

• Generates mostly methane and CO2 , with small impurities such as

hydrogen sulfide.
• Gases can be directly burnt or upgraded to superior fuel gas
(methane) by removal of CO2 and other impurities.

• Residue of anaerobic digestion may consist of protein rich sludge

and liquid effluents. These can be used as animal feed or for soil
treatment after certain processing
• In general 1 kg of dry organic matter will produce 0.036 m3 of
62
CH (at STP) or 36 m biogas per 1000 kg biomass
3
 Composition of Biogas

Anaerobic digesters also function as a waste disposal system, particularly

for human waste, and can, therefore, prevent potential sources of
environmental contamination and the spread of pathogens
• Small-scale industries are also made possible, from the sale of
surplus gas to the provision of power for a rural-based industry,
therefore, biogas may also provide the user with income
generating opportunities
• Success story of biogas plant – Industrial scale
o Satia paper mills ltd., Muktsar, Punjab: Bio-methanation
(biogas–10,000cum) of black liquor (52,000 cum)
o Savings on 20 to 22 tonnes of rice husk used as fuel
o 15-20% of energy requirement of mill provided by biogas
plant
o Savings on electricity, chemical consumption, low COD and
BOD in wastewater treatment systems
Biogas
• Two basic types of biogas plants
(1) Floating gas holder (KVIC model) and (2) Fixed dome type
• Hinderances in success of Biogas plants
• Technical gaps in operation and maintenance
• Cultural practices
• Social stigma
• Climatic variations (winter temperature)
• Compared to the biogas programme in China, where 07 million household
and community biogas systems have been successfully installed, India has
a long way to go to realise the benefits of biogas technology.
• China, through the creation of effective institutions and by placing an
emphasis on training and education, has achieved widespread
dissemination of biogas technology
 Parameters Affecting Anaerobic Digestion
 The most important determinants of good living conditions for
anaerobic bacteria and therefore efficient gas production, are :
– Temperature
– Retention Time
– pH-level
– Carbon/Nitrogen ratio (C/N ratio)
– Proportion of dry matter in substrate
– Agitation (mixing) of the substrate

 If any one of these determinants is outside acceptable range,

the digestion may be inhibited
 Substrate Temperature in the Digester

Anaerobic fermentation can work in an ambient temperature

between 3oC and 70oC and, if colder, the reactor has to be
insulated and/or heated.

Common temperature ranges for bacteria:

• Psychrophillic bacteria below: 20oC
• Mesophillic bacteria : 20oC – 40oC
• Thermophillic bacteria above : 40oC

Methane production is very sensitive to changes in

temperature
 pH –value is crucial for a good result

pH is a central parameter for controlling the anaerobic process

• Optimal production when pH 7.0 – 7.2

• Inhibition (due to acids) if pH < 6.2
• Inhibition (due to ammonia) if pH > 7.6

Deviation from the optimum range results in:

• Lower gas yield
• Inferior gas quality
 C/N ratio is Important

 Microorganisms need nitrogen and carbon) for their metabolism

 Methanogenic organisms prefer a C/N ratio of between 10:1 and
20:1
 N must not be too low, or else there will be shortage of nutrient
 Recommendation: Mix different substrates

• If N concentration is too high (>1,700 mg/l of NH4-N) and

pH is high, then growth of bacteria is inhibited due to toxicity
caused by high levels of (uncharged) ammonia
Essential Micronutrients
Changes in dry matter (DM) concentration
inside the digester
 Stirring the Substrate
Stirring improves the efficiency of digestion by:
• Removing metabolites (gas removal)
• Bringing fresh material in contact with bacteria

• Reducing scum formation and sedimentation

• Preventing temperature gradients in the digester
• Avoiding the formation of blind spots (short cuts)

• However, excessive stirring disturbs the symbiotic relationship

between the different bacteria species
• Simple biogas units normally do not have mechanical stirring
devises
 Efficiency of a biogas unit
Input:
1 kg of dry (95%) cattle dung will produce 2.5 kWh (rule of thumb)
1 kg dry (100%) matter can generate 2.5/0.95 = 2.63 kWh
Slurry contains 10% dry matter, thus 1 litre can generate 0.263 kWh
1 litre slurry (27oC, 90 days retention) releases 27 litre biogas

1 m3 of biogas can generate 6 kWh (rule of thumb)

So, 1 lit of slurry generates 0.027*6 = 0.162 kWh

Actual kWh 0.162

Efficiency = = = 0.62
Potential kWh 0.262

62% efficiency and the other 38% energy remains in the slurry
 Fixed-dome Biogas Digester

4 2
1

3
4

Bird´s
eye view

1 2 slurr 3
y
Floating-drum Unit with Water-jacket
 Carbon Rich Platform

• Natural plant oils such as soybean, corn, palm, and canola oils
– In wide use today for food and chemical applications
• Transesterification of vegetable oil or animal fat produces
fatty acid methyl ester
– Commonly known as biodiesel.
• Biodiesel an important commercial air-emission reducing
additive / substitute for diesel fuel
– could be platform chemical for biorefineries.

76
Biodiesel
• Bio-diesel is an eco-friendly, alternative diesel fuel prepared from

domestic renewable resources i.e. vegetable oils and animal fats.

• These natural oils and fats are made up mainly of triglycerides.
• These triglycerides when reacted chemically with lower alcohols

in presence of a catalyst result in fatty acid esters.

• These esters show striking similarity to petroleum derived diesel

and are called "Bio-diesel".

• In the US bio-diesels are mainly derived from Soybean oil and in

Europe from the Sunflower oil.

 Biodiesel for India
• Since India is deficient in edible oils, therefore, the non-edible oil
like Karanjia, Jatropha, etc. could be the desirable source for India
for production of bio-diesel.
• These plants could be grown on wasteland, about 80 million
hectare of which is available in India.
• These crops grow in arid and semi-arid region and require almost
no post plantation management and care.
• Since, all the wasteland is available in rural and economically
underdeveloped region, the large-scale bio-diesel production has
an enormous potential for employment and development of these
areas.
Compatibility of Biodiesel
• The major application of Bio-diesel is in transportation sector as
an alternate to mineral diesel.
• Many automobiles builders like Ford, John Deere, Massey-
Ferguson, Mercedes, BMW, Volkswagen, Volvo, etc have
accepted Bio-diesel as the fuel suitable for their vehicles in the
existing diesel engines.
• However, mostly Bio-diesel is used in 10% or 20% blends rather
than as neat Bio-diesel.
• The depletion of the world petroleum reserves coupled with the
global environmental problems stimulated the search for the
alternative source for petroleum fuel.
• Bio-diesel is one of such candidates for the exploitation as an
alternative to diesel fuel.
 Bio-Fuels

• Ethanol
– Created by fermentation of starches/sugars
– Active research on cellulosic fermentation
• Biodiesel

– Organic oils combined with alcohols

– Creates ethyl or methyl esters
• SynGas Biofuels

– Syngas (H2 & CO) converted to methanol, or liquid fuel

similar to diesel
80
Biofuel yields of Selected First Generation Ethanol
and Biodiesel Feedstock

7 ,0 0 0
S o u r c e : F u lt o n e t a l.

6 ,0 0 0

5 ,0 0 0 E th a n o l F e e d s to c k

B io d ie s e l F e e d s t o c k
4 ,0 0 0
L it e r s p e r H e c t a r e

3 ,0 0 0

2 ,0 0 0

1 ,0 0 0

0
B a r le y W h eat C o rn S u g ar b eet Su g ar S o yb ean C a s to r S u n flo w e r R a p e s e e d J a tr o p h a P a lm o il
can e b ean s seed

81
 Some Market Information…

• Biofuel market development during the last 5

years: now ~3% of global gasoline
consumption
• Biofuels may share ~10% of world fuel use for
transport by 2025
• Less than 10% of global biofuels production is
internationally traded
• But important expansion in global trade: key
consumers (EU, US, and Japan) will not have
the domestic capacity to meet internal demand
 Environmental Issues
• Air Quality
– Reduce NOx and SO2 emissions
• Global Climate Change
– Low/no net increase in CO2
• Soil Conservation
– Soil erosion control, nutrient retention, carbon
sequestration, and stabilization of riverbanks
• Water Conservation
– Better retention of water in watersheds
• Biodiversity and Habitat
– Positive and negative changes

83
Heat and CO2 Content

84
 Merits of Biomass Energy

• Growth of biomass consumes more CO2 than

released during combustion, thus purifying
atmosphere.
• Low cost as compared to fossil fuels

• Disposal of waste problem is solved

 Non-Commercial

Energy Sources
Conventional
Commercial
Non-Conventional Solar, Geothermal,
Wind & Tidal waves
Solar Energy
 Solar Energy
• Solar Energy is the most readily available and free source of
energy. The sun radiates about 3.8×1026 watt of power in all
directions. Out of this about 1.7×1017 watt power is intercepted by
the earth.
• The average solar radiation values for India are between 12.5 and
22.7 MJ/ m2. day.
• Solar Energy can be used directly for heating and lighting home
and buildings, for generating electrical energy, cooking foods, hot-
water heating, drying materials and a variety of commercial and
industrial uses.
 Energy from the Sun
• The solar radiation received outside the earth’s atmosphere is called
extra-terrestrial solar radiation.
• The measured value indicate that the extra-terrestrial solar radiation
has a value of 1353 W/ m2.
• The amount of radiation received from the sun at a particular place
on the surface of the earth will depend upon:
 The Solar Constant So, refers to the extra-terrestrial solar
radiation for the mean distance between the sun & earth.
 The angle at which the sun’s noon rays strike the earth.
 The number of hours of daylight in a day.
 The length of atmosphere that the sun’s rays must pass before
 Controls of Temperature
Besides the radiation received from the sun, the weather at a
particular location is also influenced by geographic effects. These
geographic effects are called controls of temperature.
 Altitude: High up in the mountains will be colder than valley
region
 Location of land and water surfaces: The ocean will
modify your weather, making it usually warmer in the winter
and cooler in the summer than at a place at the same latitude
located in the center of a continent.
 Mountain barriers: The mountains can act as barriers,
blocking much of the air from reaching a particular location.
Various Routes of Solar Energy Utilization

• Solar Energy can be utilized through two different routes, as

Solar thermal routes and Solar photovoltaic routes. Solar
Energy can be converted  into Thermal Energy with the help of
Solar Collectors and receivers known as Solar-Thermal
devices
• The Solar-Thermal devices can be classified into three
categories
• Low-Grade Heating Devices - up to the temperature of 100 C
• Medium-Grade Heating Devices - up to the temperature of
100-300 C.
• High-Grade Heating Devices - above temperature of 300 C
 Solar Thermal Collectors

• Solar Thermal collectors gather the thermal energy from the solar
radiation and deliver it to the thermal transport fluid (either gas or
liquid)
• Type of solar thermal collection systems are in practical use for
medium and high temperature applications:
a)Dispersed or distributed receiver systems: parabolic through
collectors with line focus or paraboloid dish collectors with point
focus.
Each collector individually heats up its own receiver and receivers
are connected with piping systems for flow of fluid.
b)Central receiver systems: Several heliostats on ground level
reflect the sun light to the single receiver on a tall tower.
 Important Aspects of Solar Thermal Collectors

Kw/ m2 in solar radiation on surface

• Concentration Ratio (CR)=
Kw/ m2 in surface of focus of collector

The performance of a collector is evaluated in terms of its

collector efficiency

Energy collected by the collector (J)

• Collector Efficiency =
Energy incident on the collector (J)
 Flat Plate Collector
• It consists of a thermally
conducting collector plate
equipped with passages through
which a heat transfer fluid
passes, transferring heat from
the collector plate to a fluid
storage tank.
• The collector plate surface facing the incoming sunlight is treated to
absorb as much of that sunlight as possible.
• A transparent cover (usually glass) is placed parallel to the collector
plate, forming an enclosed space that reduces the heat loss to the
94
surrounding atmosphere
Because of the vagaries of solar irradiance from day to day, a
solar collector, no matter how big, can never completely satisfy
the demand for year-round heat for domestic hot water or space
heating, and a backup supply must be available for satisfactory
operation.
Focussing Collectors

The purpose of employing

focusing solar collector systems
is to increase the intensity of the
solar radiation falling on the
collector, thereby making it
possible to collect solar energy
at a higher temperature and with
a smaller collector area than for
a simple flat plate system.
Focussing Collectors
 Focusing systems collect solar energy at a sufficiently high
temperature (~ 300 °C) to use that energy in a heat engine cycle
to generate electric power efficiently.
 Tracking the sun is only in one plane for daily movement of the
sun.
 The reflected light is focused on central line of the parabolic
through.
 The pipe located along the centre line absorbs the heat and the
working fluid is circulated through the pipe.

97
Heat Transfer Fluids

1. Water- steam (being used)

2. Liquid Metals (e.g. Sodium)
3. Molten Salts (e.g. Nitrate salt mixtures)
4. Gases (Air, Nitrogen, Helium)
5. Heat transfer oils
Components of Solar Thermal Power Plants
Direct Conversion of Solar Energy to Electrical
Energy

Solar Photovoltaic Route

 Photovoltaic cells
When sunlight falls upon the cell, some photons penetrate to the
region of the interface and can create there an electron–hole pair,
provided that the photon energy equals or exceeds the gap energy Eg
needed to move an electron from the valence band to the conduction
band; that is, provided that the wavelength λ is less than hc/Eg.
• The electron and hole move to the negative and positive
electrodes respectively and provide a current that moves
through the external circuit from the positive to the negative
electrodes with an accompanying electric potential drop, both
sustained by the flow of photons into the cell.

Electric Power Output

Efficiency of Solar Cell =
Power Intercepted
 Solar
Boron-Enriched Radiations
Silicon

Electric
Bulb
Phosphorus-
Enriched Silicon

DC Electricity

Junction
Solar Cell
(PV Cell)

Solar Cell
 Photovoltaic Cells, Modules, Panels and Arrays

Cell Module

Array Panel
104
Stand-Alone Configurations with AC Loads
Stand-alone systems with AC loads must include an inverter, which
draws DC power from the battery bank and changes it to AC power
for distribution.

105
 Area required per solar panel

Area required for a solar panel = E / (I.ɳ)

Where,
E : Electrical energy requirement for a day (kWh)
I : Total solar radiation received in a day (kWh/m2)
ɳ: Efficiency of solar panels
Similar PV Devices in Series

When similar devices are connected in series, the voltages add

and the current is the same as one device

Pos (+) (-) (+) Neg (-)

A B

V = V A + VB
Current (A)

I = I A = IB
Pos (+) Neg (-)

A, B A+B

107
Voltage (V)
 Similar PV Devices in Parallel

When similar devices are connected in parallel, the individual

currents add, while the voltage is the same as for one device

A
A+B
Current (A)

V = V A = VB
I = I A + IB
A, B
B
Neg (-) Pos (+)
Voltage (V)

108
Success stories
• 50 KW SPV power project – Neil Island, Andaman & Nicobar
• 200 KW Grid-interactive SPV – Karkar Kalan Village,
Nawanshahr, Punjab installed in 2003 and generates 9400
units of electricity per year
• Large scale deployment of solar powered water pumps in
Punjab (2002-03) – 500 pumps each capable of delivering
1,40,000 litres water per day from depth of 6-7 meters and
irrigate 5-8 acres of land (implementation in AP, Gujarat,
Haryana)
• World’s largest solar cooker – Brahmakumari Ashram, Mount
Abu, Rajasthan, Cooks meal for 10,000 people without a
single unit of commercial fuel used
GOI Initiative: Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha
evam Utthan Mahabhiyaan (PM KUSUM)

• PM KUSUM Scheme issued by MNRE on 08.03.2019

• The Scheme consists of three components:
o Component A: 10,000 MW of Grid Connected Solar or any
other RE Plants (500 KW to 2 MW capacity)
o Component B: 17.50 lakh standalone Solar Agriculture
Pumps (up to 7.5 HP)
o Component C: Solarisation of 10 Lakh grid-connected
Agriculture Pumps (up to 7.5 HP)
• Total 25,750 MW capacity to be created by the year 2022
• Central Financial Support of Rs. 34,422 Cr
Merits of Solar PV Systems
• Use of clean, cheap, noiseless, safe, renewable solar energy to
produce electrical energy at the location of utilization,
conservation of non-renewable fuels
• Suitable for remote loads away from main electrical network and
at places where other fuels are scarce and costly.
• Cost of installation of long distribution lines, distribution
substations etc is eliminated.
• Suitable for portable or mobile load e.g. cars , buses, space crafts
• Reliable service, long life
• Modest maintainace
Limitations of Solar PV Systems
• Irregular, intermittent supply of solar energy
• Need for storage batteries
• High capital cost (INR/ kW) due to
o large number of PV cells,
o low output power,
o low efficiency
o high technology involved
• Not economical for central power plants of MW rating due to
very large area of PV panels and very large storage battery
system
Wind Energy
 WIND POWER
• Wind energy been used by humans for centuries to pump water and
grind grain through wind mills.

• Today’s wind powered electricity generators or aero generators are

just advanced wind mills. Large no. of wind mills installed in a
cluster is known as wind farms.

• Big Wind Turbines or Wind Farms, like old Wind mills are mounted
on a tower to capture the Wind energy with there propeller like
blades

• The turning through Wind power spins a generator to produce

electricity. Wind Turbines which are suitable for residential or
village scale wind power range from 500 watts to 50 kilowatts
Wind Energy

• In India, more than 2000 MW of wind powered electricity

is being generated commercially
• In India winds are relatively low (5-20 Km/hr) & varies
with season.
• 20 million MW of wind power could be commercially
tapped worldwide (not including contribution from wind
mill clusters at sea)
• India ranks fifth in the world in Wind power generation
after Germany, USA, Spain and Denmark.
• India: Over 34.6 GW of Installed Capacity
48.54 % of the total renewable energy capacity
10% in total energy installation In India
About 2 Million Jobs Created
• Wind turbines extract energy by slowing down the
wind. For a wind turbine to be 100% efficient it would
need to stop 100% of the wind - but then the rotor
would have to be a solid disk and it would not turn and
no kinetic energy would be converted.

• On the other extreme, if you had a wind turbine with

just one rotor blade, most of the wind passing through
the area swept by the turbine blade would miss the
blade completely and so the kinetic energy would be
kept by the wind.
Real World Wind Turbine Power Efficiencies

• The theoretical maximum power efficiency of any design

of wind turbine is 0.59 (i.e. no more than 59% of the
energy carried by the wind can be extracted by a wind
turbine).

• By the time you take into account other inefficacies in a

complete wind turbine system - e.g. the generator,
bearings, power transmission and so on - only 10-30% of
the power of the wind is ever actually converted
into usable electricity.
The amount of electrical power produced by a wind turbine doesn't
only depend on the speed of the wind, and how smoothly it flows. It
also depends on the way the turbine is built:
• The number of blades
• The length of the blades
• The shape of the blades
• The weight of the blades
• The pitch (angle) of the blades to the wind
• The height of the tower
• The gears used
• The type of generator used
• The computer system that controls the operation of the turbine and
its power output (where this is used)
Planning of a Wind Farm
Wind farms are located in vast flat open spaces away from thick
forests, cities and mountains. A single wind farm may have 10-50
wind turbine units of small or medium size (15kW to 300 kW per
unit).
The main criteria for selecting the site for Wind Farm are:
 Adequate and uniform average wind velocity throughout year.
Freedom from cyclones, floods, lightning strokes.
 Availability of vacant land free from forests, townships etc.
 Availability of a distribution substation connected to the electrical
grid, within a short distance (< 10 km).
• Suitable terrain and soil for installing the Wind Turbine towers
movement of crane etc.
• Approach roads upto site for movement of erection equipment
and the wind turbine subassemblies.
• Existing of an electricity market for the energy generated is an
important factor affecting the economic benefits of the project.
There should be energy demand in regions close to wind farms.
• The environmental sub factors that affect the site selection of a
wind farm include visual impact, electromagnetic interference,
wild life and endangered species and noise impact. Therefore
environmental clearance is mandatory.
 Wind Farm Siting
A: Onshore:
Onshore wind turbines are placed in
hilly and mountainous places and
are at least three kilometers away
from the nearest shore.
B: Near-shore
Near-shore wind turbines are installed
within three kilometers from the
nearest shore or on water within
ten kilometers from land.
C: Offshore
Offshore wind turbines’ development
zones are at least ten kilometers away from land.
 Wind Power Systems Components
The wind power system
comprises one or more wind
turbine units operating
electrically in parallel. Each
turbine is made of the following
basic components:
• Tower structure
• Rotor with two or three blades
attached to the hub
• Shaft with mechanical gear
• Electrical generator
• Yaw mechanism, such as the
tail vane
• Sensors and control
 WIND ENERGY

• Wind turbine work by converting the kinetic energy in the wind,

first into rotational kinetic energy in the turbine and then electrical
energy that can be supplied.
• The energy available for conversion mainly depends on the wind
speed and the swept area of the turbine
• Power production from a wind turbine is function of wind speed.
• Electrical components of wind turbine
• The amount of electricity produced from a turbine depends on;
1. Wind speed
2. Wind turbine availability
3. Arrangement of wind turbine
• Working ;
• The theoretically available power in the wind can be expressed
as;
P = ½ ƥ A V3
P = power
ƥ =density of air (kg/m3)
A= area, wind passing through perpendicular to wind (m2)
V = wind velocity (m/s)
• Density of air decrease with temperature and altitude and that
the major factor in power generation.
• The actual available power efficiency is
Pa = ½ ξ ƥ A V3
ξ = efficiency of the wind mill in general less than 0.4 or
40%.
 Control Methods
Control of turbine: generator speed, blade angle adjustment (Pitch
Control), and rotation of the entire wind turbine (Yaw Control)

Yaw refers to the rotation of the entire wind

turbine in the horizontal axis.
• Yaw control ensures that the turbine is
constantly facing into the wind to
maximize the effective rotor area and, as a
result, power. 
• Because wind direction can vary quickly,
the turbine may misalign with the
oncoming wind and cause power output
losses.
 Pitch Control
The purpose of pitch control is to maintain the
optimum blade angle to achieve certain rotor
speeds or power output.
• Methods of Pitch Control: stall and furl
• By stalling a wind turbine, the angle of attack
increases, which causes the flat side of the blade
to face further into the wind.
• Furling decreases the angle of attack, causing the
edge of the blade to face the oncoming wind.
• Pitch angle adjustment is the most effective way
to limit output power by changing aerodynamic
force on the blade at high wind speeds.
Wind Turbine Types
Horizontal-Axis – HAWT
• Single to many blades - 2, 3 most
efficient
• Upwind downwind facing ,
downwind facing
• Solidity / Aspect Ratio – speed
and torque
• Shrouded / Ducted – Diffuser
AugmentedWind Turbine (DAWT)
Vertical-Axis – VAWT
• Darrieus / Egg-Beater (lift force
driven)
• Savonius (drag force driven)
World’s Largest Offshore Wind Turbine
Improvement in Efficiency of Wind Turbines: 1990-2016

131
Fundamental Equation of Wind Power
–Wind Power depends on:
• amount of air (volume)
• speed of air (velocity)
• mass of air (density)
flowing through the area of interest (flux)
•P=½ *ρ* A*v 3
• Power ~ cube of velocity
• Power ~ air density
• Power ~ rotor swept area A= πr 2
Wind power (W) = ½ (mass flow rate (kg/s)) * (wind
velocity(m/s)) 2
Efficiency in Extracting Wind Power
Betz Limit & Power Coefficient:

• Power Coefficient, Cp, is the ratio of power extracted by the turbine

to the total contained in the wind resource Cp = P T /P W

• Turbine power output

P T = ½ * ρ * A * v 3 * Cp

• The Betz Limit is the maximal possible Cp = 16/27

• 59% efficiency is the BEST a conventional wind turbine can do in

extracting power from the wind

Advantages
• Clean and non-polluting fuel source
• Offsets Carbon footprint
• No Water Required
• Socio economic growth enabler - Employment and GDP
Growth Mainly in Rural Area
• Key Mitigation tool to reverse Climate Change

Disadvantages
• It requires expensive storage during peak production
times to off set non-windy periods.
• Wind farms occupy substantial areas & the sight of such
farms may not be aesthetically appealing.
Wind Energy
Success stories
• 540 MW wind power plant – Muppandal, Kanyakumari –
Largest concentration of wind turbines in a given location
• Created in remote, backward region of the state of Tamilnadu
• Providing power to large population living without means of
electricity reaching the area
• 350 MW commercial wind power plant – Jogimatti,
Chitradurga, Karnataka – Recorded world’s highest annual
capacity factor
• 350 MW semi-commercial plant – Vankusawade, Maharastra
– Transformation of barren and unproductive district into an
industrial belt without consumption a single unit of power
from central/state grid.
Potential for Wind Energy: India
• The Potential for wind power generation for grid interaction
has been estimated at about 1,02,788 MW taking sites having
wind power density greater than 200 W/sq. m at 80 m hub-
height with 2% land availability in potential areas for setting
up wind farms @ 9 MW/sq. km.
Technology: Indian Scenario 
• Two types of wind turbines: stall regulated and pitch regulated
• Stall regulated wind turbines: fixed rotor blades
• Pitch regulated wind turbines: adjustable rotor blades that
change the angle of attach depending upon wind speed.
• Wind turbines are also available with lattice, steel tubular and
• concrete tubular towers.
Problem 1
A 10 kW wind turbine with a rotor diameter of 14 m is
installed in a place with a wind velocity 6.5 m/sec. The
electricity generated is sold at the cost of Rs. 10 per unit
(kWh). The density of air 1.2 kg/m3.

Based on the given information calculate the following:

(i) Volume flow rate of wind (in m3/sec)
(ii) Efficiency of the wind turbine
(iii) Income (in Rs.) generated in a year
 (i) Mass flow rate calculation
• Volume of air passing through the turbine per second =
(rotor area) x (wind velocity) m3/sec
= π x 72 m2 x 6.5 m/sec
= 1000 m3/sec

Mass flow rate = Vol.flow rate x density kg/sec

= 1000 m3/sec x 1.2 kg/m3
= 1200 kg/sec
 (ii) Efficiency Calculation
Wind power = ½ (mass flow rate) * (wind velocity) 2
= ½ (1200) kg/sec * (6.5)2 m2/sec2
= 25350 W = 25 kW

Efficiency = Wind power output from turbine /

Wind power
= 10 kW/25 kW = 0.4
 (iii) Annual Energy Production
Annual energy = power output x 365 x 24
= 10 kW x 365 x 24 h
= 87600 kWh

Annual revenue from the wind turbine

= 87600 kWh x 10 (Rs./kWh)
= Rs. 8,76,000
Problem 2
House with the following appliances is powered by propane based
engine with efficiency 25% need to be converted to solar PV
Solar radiation available is = 4 kWh/m2 on 25th December 2015
The heat of combustion of propane is (2000 kJ/mol)
Name of appliance Number Power consumed(W) Total working
hours
Tube Light 2 40 8
Fan 2 50 8
Refrigerator 1 80 24
Air conditioner 1 1000 6
 Estimate
a) Cost of solar PV required (Rs. 5,000 / 100 W)
b) Area required (Efficiency 20%)
c) Rating of 24 V Battery required for 3 days of no solar
radiation available.
d) CO2 reduction /day
 Solution

• Total daily requirement is

(2*40*8)+(2*50*8)+(1*80*24)+(1*1000*6)
=9360 Wh or 9.36 kWh

Solar radiation availability (insolation) = 4 kWh/m2/day

Assume 1 kW/m2 is available in a day for 4 h

Power rating of solar panel required

= total daily requirement / duration for 1 kW/m2 available
= 9.36 kWh / 4 h = 2.34 kW (2400 W approx.)
Costing
• Cost of 100 W panel = Rs. 5000
• Hence 24 x 5000 = Rs. 1,20,000

Area required by panel

Area required for a solar panel = E / (I.ɳ)

Where,
E : Electrical energy requirement for a day (kWh)
I : Total solar radiation received in a day (kWh/m2)
ɳ: Efficiency of solar panels
= (9.36 /4*0.2) m2
= 11.7 m2
Battery Requirement
• 3 day energy requirement = 3 x 9.36 kWh = 28 kWh
• Capacity of battery = (28 kWh)/ 24 V = 1.2 kAh
CO2 reduction /day
C3H8 + 5 O2  3 CO2 + 4 H2O
The heat of combustion of propane is (2000 kJ/mol)
Electrical energy from 1 mol of propane (efficiency of engine =
25%) = 0.25 * 2000 kJ = 500 kJ
Total daily requirement is 9.36 kWh
Converting to Joules = 9.36 x 1000 x 3600
= 3.4 x 107 j = 3.4 x 104 kj
Propane required = 3.4 x 104 kj/500= 68 mol
CO2 emitted from the process = 3 x 68 mol
Mass of CO2 = 204 X 44 g = 8976 g = 9 kg/day
Reference book:
Non-Conventional Energy Sources by G.D.
Rai, Khanna Publishers