WINDS

Dr. KULDEEP SRIVASTAVA

Director

INDIA METEOROLOGICAL DEPARTMENT

BAMRAULI, ALLAHABAD
E-MAIL : [email protected]
 WIND
• In atmosphere air moves horizontally and
vertically.
• The horizontal movement of air is called wind.
• Wind has two component : Direction and Speed
• Wind is a vector quantity.
• Wind is closely related to horizontal variation of
pressure.
• Wind consists of succession of strong winds
(gusts) and week winds (lulls).
SIGNIFICANCE OF WINDS IN AVIATION

Surface winds and their gustiness are important to

pilots at the time of landing and take-off operations.

Upper air winds at the cruising level affect the

ground speed of the aircraft. Pilots and Navigators
make intelligent use of the upper winds so that the
effect of strong head winds is minimized or the
effect of tail wind is utilized to the maximum. Upper
wind information is, therefore, necessary for the
work of flight planning.
 Wind Speed
Wind speeds are quoted in a variety of
different units
 Metres per second (m s-1)
 all scientific use, and frequent common use

 Knots (kt) = nautical­miles per hour

= 0.514 m s-1  0.5 m s-1

 Kilometres per hour (kph) = 0.278 m s-1

 1 kt  1/2 m s-1  2 kph

 Wind Speed

Wind speed is generally reported at an interval of 05

kts
 0-2 kt Calm
 03-07 as 05 kt
 08-12 kt as 10 kt
 ---
 48-52 kt as 50 kt
 Wind Direction
It is meteorological convention to
give the direction that the wind is
coming FROM
Wind Direction
 Southerly below from S to
N.
 Easterly below from E to
W.
 It is indicated on 16 point
Of compass
 N,NNE,NE,ENE,E,ESE,SE,
SSE,S,SSW,SW,WSW,W,
WNW,NW,NNW
 In degree, at interval of 10
deg
 350,330,10,20,30
 CROSS WIND
Runways are oriented along most prevailing wind
directions - based on climatology

During adverse weather or transition seasons:

wind direction is 90 deg to runway. Such wind is
called cross wind.

Cross wind value for each aircarft is specified.

Cross wind tend to swing the aircraft during
landing and take off, when cross wind exceeds the
value.
 CROSS WIND

Cross wind situations: There should be at least two

runways

1. One parallel to the prevailing wind direction

2. Other perpendicular to prevailing wind direction

 Measurement of wind
Surface wind
Wind speed – Anemometer
Wind Direction – Wind vane

Upper air wind

RS/RW – radio sonde
RAWIN – RADAR
Pilot balloon equipment – Theodolite
Measurement of Surface wind
Anemometer
 Wind speed measured with anemometer.
 Instrument is exposed to the wind,
consists of hemispherical cups mounted
at the end of equally spaced arms fixed
to a central spindle.
 The effect of the wind is greatest on the
open sides of the cups.
 The cups rotate at a speed which is
directly related to the strength of the
wind.
 The rotation of the central spindle is
used to operate a counter which gives
the run of the wind in Kms.
Anemometer
 Two readings are taken at an interval
of 3 minutes and the difference
between them is multiplied by 20 to
get: the wind speed in Km/Hr.

 For aviation purposes (landing and

take off), wind speed is expressed in
knots. (10 kts = 18 Kms. per hour).
Wind vane
 For determination of wind direction, a wind vane
is used.
 It is a balanced lever which turns freely about a
vertical axis. One end of the lever expose a broad
surface to the wind, whilst the other end is
pointed.
 Under this lever is fixed a rigid cross, the arms of
which are set to the four cardinal points North,
East, South and West.
 The wind vane points to the direction from which
the wind blows. The direction can also be
expressed as degrees from true North.
 EXPOSURE OF WIND INSTRUMENTS
 Anemometer and wind vane may made to take
observation located at a distance from the site of
anemometer and wind vane (Using electrical
circuits)

 The wind instruments are generally installed at a

height of 10 meter above ground level (a.g.l) in an
open condition (i.e. free from obstructions Such as
buildings, trees etc.)

 So that the readings are true representative of

general wind over the area.
 BEAUFORT SCALE
The Beaufort scale was Force Speed range
Specification
Descriptive term
(Beaufort) (Kts) for wind
devised by Sir Francis
Beaufort. 0 Less than 1 Smoke rises vertically Calm

Direction of wind shown by

1 1-3 Light air
smoke drift but not by wind vane.

 A way of estimating the 2 4-6

Wind felt in the face, leaves
rustle, vane moves easily.
Light
Breeze
Leaves and small twigs in
wind strength according to 3 7-10 constant motion. Wing extends a
Gentle
breeze
light flag.
the appearance of the sea or 4 11-16
Raised dust and loose paper, Moderate

land. small branches are moved.

Small trees begin to sway,
breeze
Fresh
5 17-21 crosted wavelets form on inland
breeze
waters.
Created more than 200 Large branches in motion;
whistling heard in telegraph Strong
6 22-27
years ago but it is still used wires. Umbrellas used with
difficulty.
breeze

across the world. 7 28-33

Whole trees in motion. Walking
against wind difficulty.
Moderate
gale
Breaks twigs and branches off
8 34-40 trees. Generally impedes. Gale
Wind force 0 is calm. progress.
Chimoney notes and house tiles
9 41-47 strong gale
or slates removed.
Trees uprooted and considerable
Wind force 12 is a tropical 10 48-56
structural damage.
Storm

cyclone /Hurricane. 11 56-63

Widespread damage,
experienced over land.
rarely Violent
storm
Cyclone /
12 64 & above ...........
Hurricane.
 VERTICAL STRUCTURE: PRESSURE

The pressure at any point is

the result of the weight of all
the air in the column above it.

Upwards force of pressure

exactly balances downward
force of weight of air above

Decreases approximately
logarithmically with altitude

Departures from logarithmic

profile are due to changes in
air density resulting from
changes in temperature & Near the surface a 1mb change in
moisture content. pressure is equivalent to 7m
change in altitude.
PRESSURE-GRADIENT FORCE (PGF)
To keep a body of air in motion, force is
required and this is provided by difference of
atmospheric pressure in the horizontal.
This force is known as pressure gradient
force and is directed towards area of low
pressure.
Pressure-gradient force (PGF), i.e. difference
in pressure per unit of distance.
 1 p
FPG 
 x
The Pressure­Gradient Force
Horizontal pressure gradients are
the main driving force for winds.

Pressure gradient force = 1

- dP 1000 mb
 dx
where P is pressure,  is air
density, and x is distance. 1004 mb
The force is inversely proportional
to the spacing of isobars (closer
pressure
spacing  stronger force), and is
force
directed perpendicular to them,
from high pressure to low.
The pressure force acts to
accelerate the air towards the low
pressure.
 EFFECT OF ROTATION OF EARTH
 Consider a disk rotating W to E. on rotating disc draw a straight
line instantaneously.
 Stop the disc.
Line drawn curves to the right.

The effect of motion over the surface of earth is exactly same

A moving object is deflected to the right in the N hemisphere
and to the left in S hemisphere.
 Effect of rotation of Earth
Earth is a sphere – more complex
than disk: horizontal and vertical
components to the coriolis force.
In the atmosphere: Concerned only
with the horizontal component of
the coriolis force.
It has a magnitude (per unit mass)
of:
2 V sin
 = angular velocity of the earth
V = wind speed
 = latitude

This is a maximum at the poles (

=90)and zero at the equator (
=0), and results in a deflection to
the right in the northern
hemisphere, and to the left in the
southern hemisphere.
 THE CORIOLIS FORCE
 The coriolis force is an
apparent force : account for the Axis of spin
apparent deflection of a moving
object.

The coriolis force acts at right V

angles to both the direction of
motion and the spin axis of the
rotating reference frame.

Coriolis Force
 Geostrophic Balance
A pressure gradient imposed on
a stationary air mass will start to The pressure force
accelerate it towards the region continues to accelerate
of low pressure the flow, and the coriolis
force continues to turn it FP

1000 mb
FP FP FP
Vg
1004 mb V
V
V
Fc
Fc Fc
Fc Eventually the flow
The coriolis force acts to becomes parallel to the
turn the flow to the right isobars, and the pressure
(in the northern and coriolis forces balance.
hemisphere) This is termed geostrophic
balance, and Vg the
geostrophic wind speed.
 Since the coriolis force balances Air density  changes very little
the pressure force we have: at a fixed altitude, and is
usually assumed constant, but
Pressure gradient force = coriolis force decreases significantly with
1 dP = 2 Vg sin increasing altitude
 dx  pressure gradient force
increases with altitude
Geostrophic wind speed is directly
proportional to the pressure gradient,  geostrophic wind speed
and inversely dependent on latitude. increases with altitude.
 For a fixed pressure gradient,
the geostrophic wind speed decreases
towards the poles.
Geostrophic wind scale (knots)
 LIMITATIONS OF GEOSTROPHIC WIND

Vg = 1 dP
 2 sin dx
• Speed of geostrophic wind is inversely propornational to the sine of latitude.

• Vg is stronger at lower latitudes than at higher latitudes. It tends to infinity at

the equator where  =0 and sin 0 =0. which is not possible.
Hence at equator geostrophic formula is not used. Beyond 30 degree formula
is good approximation of actual wind.

• Geostrophic formula gives satisfactory approximation when PGF and

CF are in balance and isobars are straight and parallel (mid latitudes).

• If isobars are curved then Geostrophic formula is inapplicable.

•The wind at a height of 1 km. over level ground is nearly same as geostrophic
wind given by surface isobars due to absence of frictional effects.

• The wind like gusts, squalls and the local land and sea breezes do not follow
this rule.
 BUY BALLOTT'S LAW
It states that if you stand with your back to the wind, the lowest pressure lies on you left
in the N.H. but on your right in the S.H.

The law enables pilots and navigators 'to determine the approximate position of a centre of low pressure area
with respect to the wind direction encountered by them.
 If pilot is heading towards low pressure area in N.H. =>> he is likely to encounter bad weather and that his
altimeter will read high.
Precautionary measures : Have sufficient terrain clearance
: Avoid areas or very bad weather
: For ships at sea, the low enables
them to steer clear of stormy zones.

.
 BUY BALLOTT'S LAW (cont.)

 Using lose relationship between pressure and wind knowledge of winds can be
obtained over any area on the basis of pressure observations made in that area.
A weather chart for the area concerned on which isobars have been drawn
is used.

Figure shows a system of isobars and the associated winds at different places.
When the isobars are curved, another force, i.e. centrifugal force comes into play
and the wind adjusts itself to a new balance and the wind again blows such that the
low is towards its left in the N.H. Such wind is called Gradient Wind.

In a low with circular isobars, the wind circulation is anticlockwise and, in areas
of high pressure, it is clockwise. In southern hemisphere, the circulation of air
around lows and high is opposite to that in N.H
 BUY BALLOTT'S LAW (cont.)

 Near the equator the earth's deflective force becomes

zero which means that balanced motion is not possible
around equator.

Organised pressure systems like low and high do not

develop in equatorial region due to the above factor.

Winds in this region are generally light and unsteady

with frequent squaIls in the afternoon, specially over
land areas. These squalls, being temporary
phenomena, do not obey buys Ballot's law.
 Centripetal Acceleration &
Gradient wind

Motion around a curved path HIGH

requires an acceleration towards Fc
the centre of curvature: the
centripetal acceleration. V Centripetal
acceleration

LOW
FP
FP

For a low, the coriolis force is less

Centripetal V than the pressure force; for a high
acceleration
it is greater than pressure force.
Fc This results in:
LOW: V < geostrophic
The required centripetal (subgeostrophic)
acceleration is provided by an
imbalance between the pressure HIGH: V > geostrophic
and coriolis forces. (supergeostrophic)
V is here called the gradient wind
 Effect of Friction
Friction at the surface slows the wind. Turbulent mixing
extends effects of friction up to ~100 m to ~1.5 km above
surface.
Lower wind speed results in a smaller coriolis force, hence
reduced turning to right.
Surface wind lies to left of geostrophic wind
 10-20 over ocean
 25-35 over land
The wind speed a few metres above the surface is ~70% of
geostrophic wind over the ocean, even less over land
(depending on surface conditions)

31
 EFFECT OF FRICTION
 Friction between moving air and irregularities of the ground, reduces the wind speed at
the surface.
 This disturbs the balance between pressure gradient and deflective forces and new
balance is reached with friction as the third force acting against the wind.
 The resultant direction is towards low pressure side as shown in the figure.
Over the land:
Change in wind direction: Blows at an angle of about 25 ° - 35° to the isobars, towards low
pressure.
Change in wind speed: It is reduced to about 1/3 of the value of geostrophic wind.
Over the sea:
Change in wind direction: blows at an angle of about 10° - 20° to the isobars, towards low
pressure.
Change in wind speed: It is reduced to about 2/3 of the value of geostrophic wind.
 EFFECT OF FRICTION
 Frictional force disturbs the balance between pressure gradient and
deflective forces and new balance is reached with friction as the third
force acting against the wind.

 The frictional effects decrease with height and may be taken to be

absent at a height of about 1 Km. over level ground.

 At and above this height, the wind is geostrophic i.e. it attains

maximum speed as permitted by the pressure gradient with its direction
parallel to the surface isobars.
 THICKNESS OF FRICTIONAL LAYER

Frictional layer: The lowest layer of atmosphere where

frictional effects affect air motion.

 Its thickness depends upon the roughness of the ground.

Thickness of layer : 1 Km (surface to vertical)

Over level ground, winds decreases downwards and at

bottom wind speed will be nearly 1/3 of its value prevailing
at the top of the layer.

Above the frictional layer, wind will vary due to change in

pressure distribution at different levels.
For a non-rotating Earth,
convection could form
simple symmetric cells in
each hemisphere.
Coriolis force turns the Polar Cell

air flow. Stable mean Ferrel Cell

circulation has 6 counter-

rotating cells – 3 in each
hemisphere.

Within each cell, coriolis

forces turn winds to east
or west.

Exact boundaries
between cells varies with
season.
 Difference in solar heating between tropics and poles
requires a compensating flow of heat

 Coriolis turning interacts with large scale convective

circulation to form 3 cells in each hemisphere

 6 cell model is an over-simplification of reality, but

accounts for major features of mean surface winds
 Summary
 Balance of PGF and CF  Friction reduces wind speed
results in geostrophic flow near surface
parallel to isobars.

 Curvature of isobars around  Lower wind speed 

centres of high and low reduced coriolis turning
pressure requires centripetal
acceleration to turn flow,
resulting gradient wind is:  Surface wind lies 10-35 to
 supergeostrophic around left of geostrophic wind,
HIGH crossing isobars from high
 subgeostrophic around to low pressure.
LOW
 DIURNAL VARIATION OF SURFACE WIND
Day time:

Surface wind strengthens during day time and becomes light or

even calm during night.

 This is very well marked on a clear summer day.

 This is due to mixing processes taking within the frictional

layer during daytime. The insolation sets up convection currents
which are strongest in the afternoon. These up currents are
accompanied by compensating descending currents. This
vertical mixing leads to the strengthening of surface wind and
the upper wind is retarded.
 DIURNAL VARIATION OF SURFACE WIND
Night time:

 During night the cooling of the bottom layer leads to

stability and mixing is inhibited.

 The upper wind remains undisturbed and the ground wind

becomes light and reaches a minimum value around early
morning.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF WIND NEAR THE SURFACE : GUSTS AND LULLS

 Wind seldom blows steadily from one particular direction with constant
speed.
There are usually continuous variations both in speed and direction about
the average value owing to irregular motion or eddies which are set up by
friction between moving air and obstacles such as hills, buildings and trees
etc.
Such variations are known as gusts and lulls, i.e. maxima and minima in
wind speed of brief duration lasting only a few seconds.
Gusts and lulls are most pronounced near the ground when wind is strong.
The gustiness factor is given by the following ratio which is expressed as a
percentage:

GUSTINESS FACTOR = ( MAX. WIND - MIN. WIND X 100 ) / MEAN WIND

(A wind fluctuating between 45 and 15 kts is said to have 100% gustiness).

 Gustiness affects the smoothness of an aircraft in flight and is important
especially to light aircraft on landing or take-off.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF WIND NEAR THE SURFACE : SQUALLS

Squalls are to be distinguished from gusts by their

longer duration. Squally winds (A sudden increase in the
wind speed by 16 kts or more and reaching to at least 22
kts and lasting a minutes or more is termed as squall)

 A squall is a blast of wind which sets in suddenly,

lasts for some minutes and then dies away.

Unlike gusts, a squall is never due to frictional effects

but is associated with some weather feature such as a
shower, duststorm or thunderstorm.
 AVIATION : SQUALLS

- The downdrafts of TS spreads all around horizontally

on the ground as squall.

- Speed of squall is normally 40-100 kts.

- Strongest speed is in the direction of movement.

 UPPER WINDS
Upper-winds are measured by a network of stations
Pilot Balloon Observatories
Upper Air Observatories
RAWIN Stations.

The winds are determined upto a height of 12 to 16 Kms by

following hydrogen filled balloons either with theodolite (optical) or
by radio theodolite.
The coded messages containing upperwind information start with
the identification words PILOT or RAWIN depending upon the
method of observation.
In India, there are about 63 PBOs and 34 RAWIN stations.
SIGNIFICANCE OF WINDS IN AVIATION

Surface winds and their gustiness are important to

pilots at the time of landing and take-off operations.

Upper air winds at the cruising level affect the

ground speed of the aircraft. Pilots and Navigators
make intelligent use of the upper winds so that the
effect of strong head winds is minimized or the
effect of tail wind is utilized to the maximum. Upper
wind information is, therefore, necessary for the
work of flight planning.
 HIGH LEVEL WINDS: JET STREAMS
Advent of the jet age

 Cruising level of the aircraft has gone up

Upper wind information is demanded upto the

base of stratosphere 16-18 kms over tropics).

 Troposphere (0 to 16 km)
Stratosphere (16 to 50 km)
Mesosphere (50 to 80km)
 Thermosphere (80 to 640km)
 HIGH LEVEL WINDS: JET STREAMS
The winds at the levels of upper troposphere : ~ 40-50 kts

Stronger speeds : ~ 100 kts or more (over narrow band )

Belt of strong winds is known as jet stream.

The level of the maximum wind is usually tropopause

level.

Jet streams reach their greatest strength in winter season

and are somewhat feeble in the summer.
 HIGH LEVEL WINDS: JET STREAMS
Depending on their location, they are known as polar front or sub-tropical or
Equatorial jet streams.

Polar front : Well developed over the eastward moving extra. tropical
cyclones of the middle latitudes.

Sub-tropical : It is a steady feature of the winter circulation around Lat. 25 0-

300 N. The sub-tropical jet stream occurring over South Asia is well known for
its steadiness. It extends from middle east to South Japan as a continuous
belt and wind speeds often reach 200-300 kts particularly near Japan.

Few aircraft can make any progress against such phenomenal winds and are
avoided by all west bound flights by choosing suitable flight levels after
examining the upper air charts.
The equatorial Jet stream: It lies over South India is found from June to
September.
STWJ during non Monsoon

TEJ during SW Monsoon

 LOCAL WINDS
Local winds: geographical or topographical features control the
movement of air in limited areas. For example

 land and see breezes

 upslope and downslope winds near hills and valleys

Duration of local winds: short and rhythmic, variation in one day

Sea breeze’s strength: Greatest in late afternoon

 Sea breeze : Due to warming of land.

 LOCAL WINDS
Upslope and Downslope winds in the vicinity of hills and valleys

 Downslope wind: Formed on the mountain slopes

 Downslope wind strength :
: Greatest early morning
: Due to cooling of sloping land surface during night.

Forces involved : PGF and Friction.

Due to continuous variation of the forces involved and due to

shortness of the time factor, balance between the forces is not
usually achieved.
 LOCAL WINDS : AVIATION SIGNIFICANCE
 Buys Ballot's law cannot be applied to :

1. Local winds
2. Winds of a transient nature (like the squall)

Do not come under the category of balanced motion.

Local winds mask the prevailing winds i.e. winds resulting

due to general pressure distribution over the area
 LOCAL WINDS : AVIATION SIGNIFICANCE
Operational significance of local winds

Local winds have great operational significance at Airports located

in areas which are under the influence of such winds.
Airport at coastal situations: There should be at least two runways

1. One parallel to the prevailing wind direction:

: used in the mornings or night

2. Other parallel to the direction of sea breeze:

: used in afternoon and evening
 LOCAL WINDS : FOHN WINDS
FOHN WINDS:
 Air is forced over the top of a mountain barrier, the adiabatic cooling may lead to the
formation of cloud and precipitation.

 Adiabatic process: Process in which no energy enters or leaves the system. e.g Ascent of convective
air mass; Large scale lifting/subsidence; Condensation/evaporation within an airmass
 Non-Adiabatic Processes: Radiative heating/cooling, Loss of water through precipitation, Addition of
water from evaporation of precipitation falling from above.

Lapse Rate : Rate of change of temperature with height (vertical gradient of

temperature)
1. Dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR)
2. Saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR)


 Lapse Rate : DALR
Lapse Rate : Rate of
change of temperature Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
with height (vertical

Altitude
gradient of temperature)

The fall in temperature

1km
with altitude of dry air
( Due to decrease in
pressure) is called the 9.8°C

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Temperature

Rate(DALR).
DALR = -9.8°C/km.
 Lapse Rate : SALR
 Condensation releases
latent heat, thus saturated

Altitude
air cools less with altitude
than dry air. Dry Adiabatic
Lapse Rate
 There is no single value
for the saturated adiabatic
lapse rate (SALR).
 It increases as Saturated Adiabatic
Lapse Rate
temperature decreases,
Temperature
from as low as 4°C/km for
very warm, tropical air, up
to 9°C/km at -40°C.
 SALR < DALR
 THE FÖHN EFFECT

 Within the cloud, the rising air cools at the saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR)
if some of the condensed water falls out as precipitation and the air descends on
the lee slopes, then the latent heat liberated during condensation is partly used to
evaporate the cloud droplets in the descending air.

After cloud disappears the descending air warms up at the dry adiabatic lapse
rate (DALR).

The different lapse rates of unsaturated and saturated air mean that air flowing
down the lee side of a mountain range is warmer than the air on the upwind side.
 THE FÖHN EFFECT

 The more the precipitation on the mountain, the warmer the air gets on
descent.

 Very rapid temperature rises (22°C in 5 minutes has been recorded)

and leads to rapid melting of snow and avalanche conditions.

 Local names (for these warm dry winds):

Alps : Fohn
American Rockies : Chinook
LOCAL WINDS : ANABATIC WINDS

During the day a mountain slope is heated by

the sun. The air in contact becomes warmer
than the wind at the same level. It is therefore
lighter and tends to ascend the slope. Such
ascending winds are called Anabatic Winds.
 LOCAL WINDS : KATABATIC WINDS
The reverse of Anabatic Winds is the down slope
Katabatic Wind. During night due to nocturnal cooling
the mountain slope becomes cold. The air in contact
also becomes colder than the wind at the same level in
the free atmosphere, so it sinks. A down slope wind sets
in, called Katabatic wind.
 LOCAL WINDS : RAVINE WINDS
 Ravine winds passes through and upland
barrier along a narrow valley.

 These occur in and near narrow valleys which

penetrate a mountain barrier.

 When there is a pressure difference (level to

level) between the two sides of the barrier, air is
impelled through the ravine by the pressure
gradient. Such winds are called Ravine winds.
 VERTICAL MOTION: MOUNTAIN WAVES

Such disturbance caused to air flow when it strikes a range of

mountain is well known:

Upward motion on the windward side

Downward motion on the lee side

This disturbed flow is, however, not confined to the immediate

vicinity of the mountain range but extends some distance to its lee
side.

A wavy pattern of motion of air is induced leeward in the same way

as submerged rocks induce wavy motion downstream in streams,
canal etc. Such wavy motion is termed Mountain waves, lee waves
or standing waves.
 VERTICAL MOTION: MOUNTAIN WAVES

significance of mountain waves:

 An aircraft flying through them encounters alternate up and

down drafts sometimes resulting in appreciable gain or loss of
altitude.
 The extent of mountain waves in the horizontal and in the
vertical depends upon the size and shape of mountain range
variation of wind with height and stability of air.

 The existence of marked downdrafts in the neighborhood of

mountains makes the mountain wave an aviation hazard and, for
this reason, they are usually avoided by Pilots.
 The Thermal Low
 Thermal lows result from the strong contrast in
surface heating between land and sea
 Land heats up (solar radiation) and cools down
(infra-red radiation) much more rapidly than
ocean  large diurnal cycle cross-coast
temperature gradient
 A thermal low results from fine, clear, warm
weather, and thus differs from the depressions
associated with cloud and bad weather.
 1. Start with a horizontally uniform
pressure distribution.
Solar radiation starts to warm
land. Air near surface is warmed
by land, convection mixes warm
air upwards and whole
boundary layer warms.

2. Air over land warms and

expands. Can’t expand
H sideways, so column expand
upwards  produces high
pressure aloft.
Surface pressure remains
constant at this stage.

cool warm cool

 3. Horizontal pressure gradient
aloft drives a flow from over
land to over ocean.
H

cool warm cool

4. Mass of air in column over land

is reduced  surface pressure
falls to produce a surface low.
High pressure aloft weakens,
H
but is maintained by continued
heating at surface.
Surface pressure gradient
drives flow from sea to land: the
L sea breeze.
cool warm cool
 5. When solar heating stops,
pressure driven flows act to
equalize pressure, restoring
conditions to the initial uniform
H
pressure field.
If land cools sufficiently at night,
the reverse situation can be
L established.
Over large land masses there
may be insufficient time over
night for the sea breeze to reach
regions far from the coast, and a
weak surface low is maintained
over night. This then deepens
L during the following days, and a
heat low may be maintained for
days or weeks, until synoptic
conditions change.
H

warm cool warm

 Sea Breeze
 Formation of local thermal
low over land, results in the
formation of a sea-breeze
 In-flowing cool air from sea
forms a sea-breeze front –
a miniature cold front
 Air ahead of the front is
forced upward,
contributing to the
formation of cumulus.
950 mb
975 mb
1000 mb

25C 15C