Programming and Data Structures

Debasis Samanta
Computer Science & Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Spring-2017
 Lecture #1
Introduction to Digital Computers

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Today’s discussion…

*What is a digital computer?

*The basic components of a digital computer?

*How does a program run in a computer?

*Why one needs program?

*How one can write programs?

*Your first C programs

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 History of Computer

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Brief history of computer…

*The Chinese Suanpan ( 算盘 )

* The number represented on this abacus is 6,302,715,408
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Brief history of computer…

The ancient Greek-designed Antikythera mechanism, dating between 150 and 100
BC, is the world's oldest analog computer.
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Brief history of computer…

Babbages difference engine was

known as the first digital computer.

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Brief history of computer…

Sir William Thomson’s tide

predicting machine (1880).

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Brief history of computer…

Women as computers in NASA High Speed Flight Station "Computer Room"

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Brief history of computer…

Colossus was the first electronic digital programmable computing device, and
was used to break German ciphers during World War II.
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Brief history of computer…

ENIAC was the first Turing-complete device, and performed ballistics trajectory
calculations for the United States Army.
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Brief history of computer…

The Columbia Supercomputer at its largest capacity at NASA's Advanced Supercomputing

Facility located at NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California
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 Digital Computer

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What is a digital computer?
*A computer is an electronics machine that can perform computation.
* Number crunching machine!

*Now our computer can solve many problems

* Polynomial root finding
* Matrix inversion
* Primarily testing
* Travelling salesman problem
* Weather prediction
* Web browsing
* Playing games (e.g., chess), etc.
A computer is a device that can solve these and similar problems. A digital computer
accepts, processes and outputs data in digitized forms (as opposed to analog forms).
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Basic components of a digital computer…

*John Von Neumann (1903-1957)

ᴥ Father of “Modern Computer”

ᴥ First time he proposed the concept of “Stored-

program computer”

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Basic components of a digital computer…

Von Neumann Computer Architecture

How a human system work?

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Basic components of a digital computer…
Input
 User gives a set of (zero or
more) input

Processing
 The input data is processed by
a well-defined and finite
sequence of steps (also called
program.

Output
 Some data available from the
processing step are output (at
least one) to the user.

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Basic components of a digital computer…
Input devices
These are the devices using which the user provides input instances. In a programmable computer, input
devices are also used to input programs.
 Example: Keyboard, mouse, scanner (camera), etc.

Processing unit
The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of the computing device and performs the basic processing
steps. A CPU typically consists of:
 An arithmetic and logical unit (ALU): This provides the basic operational units of the CPU. It is made up of units (like
adders, multipliers) that perform arithmetic operations on integers and real numbers, and of units that perform logical
operations (logical and bitwise AND, OR etc.).
 A control unit: This unit is responsible for controlling flow of data and instructions.
 General purpose registers: A CPU usually consists of a finite number of memory cells that work as scratch locations for
storing intermediate results and values.

Output devices
These devices notify the user about the outputs of a computation.
 Example: Screen, printer, speaker, plotter, etc.
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 Fundamental in Processing

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Fundamental in processing
• Number system
• The basic things with which we compute

• Positional number systems

• Each position has a weight
• Decimal number system
• Defined with ten digits : {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} with base = 10
Example: 347 = 3×102+4×101+7×100

• Hexa-decimal number system

• Defined with 16 numerals : {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F} with base = 16
Example: (3A7)16 = 3×162+A×161+7×160 = (935)10

• Binary number system

• Defined with two bits: {0, 1} with base = 2
Example: (1110)2 = 1×23+1×22+1×21+0×20 = (14)10

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Fundamental in processing
• Number system
• Non-positional number systems
• Any position has no weight
Example: Roman number system : I, II, III, IV, etc.

• Today’s digital computer processes mainly binary number system

• This is so because, a digital computer is built out of tiny electronic switches.
• From the viewpoint of ease of manufacturing and reliability, such switches can be in one of
two states, ON or OFF, which can be represented by 0 (OFF) and 1 (ON).
Example: A + B = C

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Fundamental in processing
• Concepts of bits and bytes
• Bit : A single binary unit, that is, 0 or 1

• Nibble: A collection of 4 bits

Example: 1001, 1100, etc.

• Byte: A collection of 8 bits

Example: 11001001

• Word: Typically 4 or 8 bytes (depending on the architecture of computers)

Example, an Intel Pentium P5 (i-586) processor uses 32-bits as a word

• Larger memory chunks

• Kilobyte (KB) : 1 KB = 210 = 1024 bytes
• Megabyte (MB) : 1 MB = 220 ≈ 1 million
• Gigabyte (GB) : 1 GB = 230 ≈ 1 billion
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Number Representation
whole part fractional part
𝑎  𝑛 𝑎 𝑛+1 … … … 𝑎 2 𝑎 1 𝑎 0 .
𝑎  − 1 𝑎 −2 … … … 𝑎 −𝑚
*  Here,
E is the set of coefficients or numerals in a number system
Example:
Every number system is characterized with a radix (also called base). Let it be
denoted as r.
Example: radix

etc.
Any number is represented by,

Note: The coefficients range value from 0 to

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Decimal Number System
*(Radix)
  Base:10

Example:

What is the decimal equivalent of

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Binary Number System
* 

Convert decimal to binary

quotient remainder LSB

  Thus,
=

MSB

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Binary Number System
*  Convert decimal to binary

Integer fraction
.3750
0 .7500
1 .5000
1 0

  Thus,

Convert to binary

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Octal Number System
*  Convert decimal to octal

quotient remainder

 (231)8
2 1 0
2
  × 8 +3 × 8 +1× 8

Convert upto seven significant figures.

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Complement
*
in  its compliment form is

9999 – 5492 = 5618

complement

This is also called complement and is denoted as

complement of 012398 is 987602
complement of 1011000 is 0100111
0010011
complement of 1101100 is 0010100
+1
= 0010100

 The complement of is

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Arithmetic's in binary number system
Addition Sum Carry
0+0 0 0
0+1 1 0
1+0 1 0
1+1 0 1
1+1+1 1 1

Example: 101101
+ 010111
1000100 C=A+B

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Arithmetic's in binary number system
* 
 

A better way
The subtraction of
Steps
• Add the minuend M to the complement of the subtracted N. Thus,

Note: If the sum will produce an end carry should be discarded.

If , the sum does not produce any end carry. The result is which is the complement of .
To take the answer in original form, take the complement of the sum and place a negative sign in front.

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Arithmetic's in binary number system
* 
Example: Using complement, subtract

  M=72532
complement of N=96750
+169282
Discard the end carry-100000
Answer 69282
Example: Using complement, subtract

  M= 03250
complement of N= (+) 27468
Sum 30718
There is no end carry

Answer: ( complement of 30718)

=
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Arithmetic's in binary number system
* 

Obtain (a)
(b)
a) X=1010100
complement of Y=0111101
Sum (+) 10010001
Discard end carry 10000000
Answer 0010001

b) Y=1000011
complement of X=0111101
Sum (+) 1101111 There is no end carry
Answer complement of 1101111
=

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Signed binary number
*  MSB represents the sign of the number
The

Example
Unsigned Signed
0 +0
1 +1
2 +2
3 +3
4 -0
5 -1
6 -2
7 -3

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 Computer Architecture

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Basic components of a digital computer…
Memory
This unit stores the program to be executed.
 Register
 Memory resides within the processing unit
 Primary memory (also called main memory)
 This is a high-speed memory that stays close to the CPU.
 Programs are first loaded in the main memory and then executed.
 Usually main memory is volatile, i.e., its contents are lost after power-down.

 Secondary memory
 This is relatively inexpensive, bigger and low-speed memory.
 It is normally meant for off-line storage, i.e., storage of programs and data for future processing.
 One requires secondary storage to be permanent, i.e., its contents should last even after shut-down.
 Examples of secondary storage include floppy disks, hard disks and CDROM disks.

Buses
A bus is a set of wires that connect the above components. Buses are responsible for movement of data from
input devices, to output devices and from/to CPU and memory.
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Basic components of a digital computer…

John Von Neumann architecture

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Typical configuration of a computer

Feature Specification

CPU Intel(R) Core(TM)

i5-4570 CPU, 3.2 GHz
Main memory 4 GB

Hard disk 1 TB

Floppy disk Not required

CDROM DVD RW combo-drive

Input device Keyboard, mouse, joystick

Output device TFT Monitor

Ports 4 USB, Infrared, Firewire

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How a program runs in computer?
Output

Machine
3. Execution: Operating system
Code CPU

Program
2. Translation: Compiler

1. Solve problems : Flowchart, Algorithm, Coding

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Why we need a program?

 High speed computation

?
 The electronic speed possessed by computers for processing data is really fabulous.

 Many problems and hence many programs. The same computer can be used to
solve many problems.
 This is why computer is “general purpose” digital device!

 Same problem but have many programs.

 A custom program can better solves your problem than a readymade program.

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How can one program?
A program is essentially to specify the exact way in which the fetch-decode-
execute cycle is to be carried out so that your problem is solved. This needs a
language to specify.

• Machine language
• Machine can understand only two voltage levels{ 0 (low voltage) and 1 (high
voltage)}
• Instruction should be given in such a way, so that machine can understand
• Example: 001100110001111010
• The machine language is so low-level that writing a program in this language is
a very formidable task. One ends up with unmanageably huge codes that are
very error-prone and extremely difficult to debug and update.

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How can one program?
• Assembly language
• The CPU of a computer supports a primitive set of instructions (typically, data
movement, arithmetic, logical and jump instructions).

• Writing a program using these instructions (called assembly instructions)

• The assembly language varies from machines to machines.

• The assembly codes suitable for one machine need not be understood by another
machine. Moreover, different machines support different types of assembly
instructions and there is no direct translation of instructions of one machine to
those of another.
• For example, the ALU of Computer A may support integer multiplication, whereas
that of Computer B does not. You have to translate each single multiplication
instruction for Computer A to your own routine (say, involving additions and
shifts) for doing multiplication in Computer B.

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How can one program?
A view of Assembly level program

MOV A,X ; A = X
ADD A,Y ; A = A + Y
ADD A,Z ; A = A + Z
DIV A,3 ; A = A / 3
MOV RES,A ; RES = A

This program finds the average of three numbers.

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How can one program?
• High-level language
• A high-level language helps you make your communication with computers more
abstract and simpler and also widely machine-independent.

• You then require computer programs that convert your high-level description to
the assembly-level descriptions of individual machines, one program for each kind
of CPU. Such a translator is called a compiler.

• Therefore, your problem solving with computers involves the following three
steps:
• Write the program in high-level language, For example, Z = (A + B + C)/3
• Compile your program to get machine level program.
• Run the machine executable file.

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How can one program?
The relationships among HLL, ALL and MLL

How an Interpreter come into this picture?

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How can one program?
Views of machine level programs

In binary representation In hexa-decimal representation

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How a program runs in computer?
Output

Machine
3. Execution: Operating system
Code CPU

Program
2. Translation: Compiler

1. Solve problems : Flowchart, Algorithm, Coding

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How a program runs in computer?
The inputs, the intermediate values and the instructions defining the processing
stage reside in the (main) memory. In order to separate data from instructions the
memory is divided into two parts:
 Data area
 The data area stores the variables needed for the processing stage.
 The values stored in the data area can be read, written and modified by the CPU. The data area
is often divided into two parts: a stack part and a heap part.
 The stack part typically holds all statically allocated memory (global and local variables), whereas the
heap part is used to allocate dynamic memory to programs during run-time.

 Instruction area
 The instruction area stores a sequence of instructions that define the steps of the program.
 Under the control of a clock, the computer carries out a fetch-decode-execute cycle in which
instructions are fetched one-by-one from the instruction area to the CPU, decoded in the
control unit and executed in the ALU.
 The CPU understands only a specific set of instructions. The instructions stored in memory must
conform to this specification.

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How a program runs in computer?
The fetch-decode-execute cycle in computer
1.For starting the execution of a program, a sequence of machine instructions is copied to the instruction area of the memory. Also
some global variables and input parameters are copied to the data area of the memory.
2.A particular control register, called the program counter (PC), is loaded with the address of the first instruction of the program.
3.The CPU fetches the instruction from that location in the memory that is currently stored in the PC register.
4.The instruction is decoded in the control unit of the CPU.
5.The instruction may require one or more operands. An operand may be either a data or a memory address. A data may be either a
constant (also called an immediate operand) or a value stored in the data area of the memory or a value stored in a register.
Similarly, an address may be either immediate or a resident of the main memory or available in a register.
6.An immediate operand is available from the instruction itself. The content of a register is also available at the time of the
execution of the instruction. Finally, a variable value is fetched from the data part of the main memory.
7.If the instruction is a data movement operation, the corresponding movement is performed. For example, a "load" instruction
copies the data fetched from memory to a register, whereas a "save" instruction sends a value from a register to the data area of the
memory.
8.If the instruction is an arithmetic or logical instruction, it is executed in the ALU after all the operands are available in the CPU (in
its registers). The output from the ALU is stored back in a register.
9.If the instruction is a jump instruction, the instruction must contain a memory address to jump to. The program counter (PC) is
loaded with this address. A jump may be conditional, i.e., the PC is loaded with the new address if and only if some condition(s)
is/are true.
10.
If the instruction is not a jump instruction, the address stored in the PC is incremented by one.
11.
If the end of the program is not reached, the CPU goes to Step 3 and continues its fetch-decode-execute cycle.

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How a program runs in computer?

Execution of a program
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How can one program?
• Program writing in a high-level language
• You should use a text editor to key in your program. In the laboratory we instruct you to use the emacs editor. You
should also save your program in a (named) file.
• We are going to teach you the high-level language known as C.

• Compile your program

• You need a compiler to do that. In the lab you should use the C compiler cc (a.k.a. gcc).
cc myprog.c
• If your program compiles successfully, a file named a.out (an abbreviation of "assembler output") is created. This file
stores the machine instructions that can be understood by the particular computer where you invoked the compiler.
• If compilation fails, you should check your source code. The reason of the failure is that you made one or more
mistakes in specifying your idea. Compilers are very stubborn about the syntax of your code. Even a single mistake
may let the compiler churn out many angry messages.

• Run the machine executable file

• This is done by typing
./a.out
• (and then hitting the return/enter button) at the command prompt.

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 Introduction to C Programming

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Introduction to C
• C is a general-purpose, structured programming language.
• Resembles other high-level structured programming languages, such as Pascal
and Fortran-77.
• Also contains additional features which allow it to be used at a lower level.

• C can be used for applications programming as well as for systems

programming.

• There are only 32 keywords and its strength lies in its built-in functions.
• C is highly portable, since it relegated much computer dependent features
to its library functions.

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Introduction to C
• Originally developed in the 1970’s by Dennis Ritchie at AT&T Bell
Laboratories.
• Outgrowth of two earlier languages BCPL and B.

• Popularity became widespread by the mid 1980’s, with the availability of

compilers for various platforms.

• Standardization has been carried out to make the various C

implementations compatible.
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI), For example, ANSI-C, Turbo-
C, etc.

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Your first C-programs

This program takes no input, but outputs the string "Hello, world!" in a line.

#include <stdio.h>
main ()
{
printf("Hello, world!\n");
}

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Your first C-programs
This program accepts an integer as input and outputs the same integer. This
program is called Short-circuit program!

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdio.h>
main
main ()()
{{
intint
n; n;
scanf("%d",&n);
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("%d\n",n);
printf("%d\n",n);
}}

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Your first C-programs
This program takes an integer n as input and outputs its square n2.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdio.h>
main
main ()()
{{
intint
n; n;
scanf("%d",&n);
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("%d\n",n*n);
printf("%d\n",n);
}}

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Your first C-programs
This program takes an integer n as input and is intended to compute its
reciprocal 1/n. This program is called Reciprocal Printer.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdio.h>
main
main ()()
{{
intint
n; n;
scanf("%d",&n);
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("%d\n",1/n);
printf("%d\n",n);
}}

Really this program works?

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Your first C-programs
A corrected version of the Reciprocal Printer is as follows:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdio.h>
main
main ()()
{{
intint
n; n;
scanf("%d",&n);
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("%f\n",1.0/n);
printf("%d\n",n);
}}

Do you think that still it works??

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 Any question?

You may post your question(s) at the “Discussion

Forum” maintained in the course Web page.
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Problems to ponder…
1. What was the use “Suanpan”, ancient Greek “Analog Computers” and “Babbage’s Difference Engine”?

2. What is the full form of ENIAC?

3. What is the main difference between a “computer” and “calculator”?

4. What is cache memory? What is a virtual memory? What are there uses?

5. What is the difference between a “compiler” and an “interpreter”?. What are the merits and demerits in
them?

6. What was a punch card (once it was extensively used in IBM 360/20 system)?

7. Why a keyboard is called the standard input device and VDU is called the standard display device?

8. A CPU with 32-bits: What it does mean? Does a CPU with 64-bits better than the 32-bits one?

9. Who carries user input from user to CPU and output from CPU to user?

10. How 250.67 can be converted into a value in binary number system?

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Problems to ponder…
11. If you successfully compile the C-program in Slide #36, it will produce a file called “a.out”. If you open the
“a.out” file with an editor say emacs, it will display the content in it. Can you extract anything from it? What
is your conclusion?

12. Why the name “C” is in C-programming language?

13. What is the other higher order for memory chunks beyond GB?
14. Find a method to convert hexa-decimal number into binary and vice-versa

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Problems for practice…
*You can check the Moodle course management system for a
set of problems for your own practice.

• Login to the Moodle system at cse.iitkgp.ac.in

• Select “PDS Spring-2017 (Theory) in the link “My Courses”
• Go to Topic 1: Practice Sheet #01 : Introduction to Computer

*Solutions to the problems in Practice Sheet #01 will be uploaded

in due time.

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 If you try to solve problems yourself, then you will learn
many things automatically.

Spend few minutes and then enjoy the study.

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