Basic Sensors and Principles

Transducer, Sensor, and Actuator

Transducer: a device that converts energy from one form to
another
Sensor: converts a physical parameter to an electrical output (a
type of transducer, e.g. a microphone)
Actuator: converts an electrical signal to a physical output
(opposite of a sensor, e.g. a speaker)

Type of Sensors
•Displacement Sensors:
resistance, inductance, capacitance, piezoelectric
•Temperature Sensors:
Thermistors, thermocouples
•Electromagnetic radiation Sensors:
Thermal and photon detectors
 Displacement Measurements
Used to measure directly and indirectly the size, shape, and
position of the organs.

Displacement measurements can be made using sensors

designed to exhibit a resistive, inductive, capacitive or
piezoelectric change as a function of changes in position.
 Resistive sensors - potentiometers
Measure linear and angular position
Resolution a function of the wire construction
Measure velocity and acceleration

2 to 500mm 10o and more

 Resistive sensors – strain gages
Devices designed to exhibit a change in resistance as a result of
experiencing strain to measure displacement in the order of
nanometer.
For a simple wire: R 
 L
A
A change in R will result from a change in  (resistively), or a change
in L or A (dimension).
The gage factor, G, is used to compare various strain-gage materials
R / R  / 
G  1  2   
L / L L / L
D / D
 Is Poisson’s ratio  
L / L
Semiconductor has larger G but more sensitive to temperature
 Wheatstone Bridge
vo is zero when the bridge is balanced- that is when R1 / R2  R4 / R3
Show Proof in class

If all resistor has initial value R0 then if R1 and R3 increase by R, and
R2 and R4 decreases by R, then

R
v0  vi
R0

Show Proof in class

Unbonded strain gage:
With increasing pressure, the
strain on gage pair B and C is
increased, while that on gage
pair A and D is decreased.

Initially before any pressure

R1 = R4 and R3 = R2
Wheatstone Bridge
 R3   R4 
Va  Vi   Vb  Vi  
B A  R2  R3   R1  R4 
 R3 R4 
Vo  Va  Vb  Vi   
 R2  R3 R1  R4 
D C

 R4 ( R3  R2 )  R3 ( R1  R4 ) 
Vo  Vi  
 ( R2  R3 )( R1  R4 ) 
Error in Fig. 2.2 legend: R1 = A, R2 = B, R3 = D, R4 = C
Bonded strain gage:
- Metallic wire, etched foil, vacuum-deposited film or
semiconductor is cemented to the strained surface

- Rugged, cheap, low mass, available in many configurations and sizes

- To offset temperature use dummy gage wire that is exposed to
temperature but not to strain
Bonded strain gage terminology:

Carrier (substrate + cover)

 Semiconductor Integrated Strain Gages

Pressure strain gages sensor

with high sensitivity

Integrated cantilever-beam
force sensor
 4 cm
Clear plastic

To patient Saline Flush valve

Gel IV tubing

Silicon chip Electrical cable

Figure 14.15 Isolation in a disposable blood-pressure sensor. Disposable blood pressure

sensors are made of clear plastic so air bubbles are easily seen. Saline flows from an
intravenous (IV) bag through the clear IV tubing and the sensor to the patient. This flushes
blood out of the tip of the indwelling catheter to prevent clotting. A lever can open or
close the flush valve. The silicon chip has a silicon diaphragm with a four-resistor
Wheatstone bridge diffused into it. Its electrical connections are protected from the saline
by a compliant silicone elastomer gel, which also provides electrical isolation. This
prevents electric shock from the sensor to the patient and prevents destructive currents
during defibrillation from the patient to the silicon chip.
 Elastic-Resistance Strain Gages
Extensively used in Cardiovascular and respiratory dimensional and
volume determinations.

As the tube stretches, the diameter

decreases and the length increases,
causing the resistance to increase

b) venous-occlusion
plethysmography

c) arterial-pulse
plethysmography

Filled with a conductive fluid (mercury, conductive paste, electrolyte

solution. Resistance = 0.02 - 2 /cm, linear within 1% for 10% of
maximal extension
 Inductive Sensors
Ampere’s Law: flow of electric current will create a magnetic field
Faraday’s Law: a magnetic field passing through an electric circuit
will create a voltage

i +
+ + v2
v  v1
- -
- d N1
vN N1

N2 v1  v2
dt N2
 Inductive Sensors
Ampere’s Law: flow of electric current will create a magnetic field
Faraday’s Law: a magnetic field passing through an electric circuit
will create a voltage

Self-inductance Mutual inductance Differential

L  n G 2 transformer
di n = number of turns of coil
vL G = geometric form factor
dt  = effective magnetic permeability of the medium
LVDT : Linear variable differential transformer
- full-scale displacement of 0.1 to 250 mm
- 0.5-2 mV for a displacement of 0.01mm
- sensitivity is much higher than that for strain gages
Disadvantage requires more complex signal processing
http://www.macrosensors.com/lvdt_macro_sensors/lvdt_tutorial/lvdt_primer.pdf

vo  vcd  vce  vde

+
+
-
_
+
-

(a) As x moves through the null position,

the phase changes 180, while the
magnitude of vo is proportional to the
magnitude of x. (b) An ordinary rectifier-
demodulator cannot distinguish between
(a) and (b), so a phase-sensitive
demodulator is required.
 Capacitive Sensors
Capacitive sensors A
For a parallel plate capacitor: C   0 r
x
0 = dielectric constant of free space
r = relative dielectric constant of the insulator
A = area of each plate
x = distance between plates
Change output by changing r (substance flowing between plates),
A (slide plates relative to each other), or
x.
 C A
Sensitivity of capacitor sensor, K    0 r 2
x x
Sensitivity increases with increasing plate size and decreasing distance

When the capacitor is i

stationary xo the voltage v1=E. +
+
A change in position
x = x1 -xo produces a voltage
vo = v1 – E. dvc
ic
Vo ( j )  E / xo  j dt

X 1 ( j ) j  1
Characteristics of capacitive sensors:
High resolution (<0.1 nm)
Dynamic ranges up to 300 µm (reduced accuracy at higher displacements)
High long term stability (<0.1 nm / 3 hours)
Bandwidth: 20 to 3 kHz
 Piezoelectric Sensors
Measure physiological displacement and record heart sounds.

• Certain materials generate a voltage when subjected to a

mechanical strain, or undergo a change in physical dimensions
under an applied voltage.
•Uses of Piezoelectric
•External (body surface) and internal (intracardiac)
phonocardiography
•Detection of Korotkoff sounds in blood-pressure
measurements
•Measurements of physiological accelerations
•Provide an estimate of energy expenditure by measuring
acceleration due to human movement.
 q  kf
Vo k  piezoelectric constant, C/N
(typically pC/N, a material property)
k for Quartz = 2.3 pC/N
k for barium titanate = 140 pC/N

To find Vo, assume system acts like a capacitor (with infinite leak resistance):

q kf kfx Capacitor:
Vo    C   0 r
A
C C  0 r A x
For piezoelectric sensor of 1-cm2 area and 1-mm thickness with an
applied force due to a 10-g weight, the output voltage v is
0.23 mV for quartz crystal
14 mV for barium titanate crystal.
 Models of Piezoelectric Sensors

Piezoelectric polymeric films, such as polyvinylidence fluoride (PVDF).

Used for uneven surface and for microphone and loudspeakers.
 Transfer Function of Piezoelectric Sensors
View piezoelectric crystal as a charge generator:
q  Kx
K  proportionality constant
x  deflection

Rs: sensor leakage resistance

Cs: sensor capacitance
Cc: cable capacitance
Ca: amplifier input capacitance
Ra: amplifier input resistance

Ra
 Transfer Function of Piezoelectric Sensors
Convert charge generator to current generator:

q  Kx
dq dx
is  K
dt dt
is  ic  iR
ic  is i R Ra

 dVo  dx Vo
C K 
 dt  dt R

Vo  j  K s j

X  j  j  1 Current
Ra

Ks = K/C, sensitivity, V/m

 = RC, time constant
Voltage-output response of a piezoelectric sensor to a step
displacement x.
Decay due to the finite
internal resistance of the PZT

q  VC  Kx
Kx
V0 
C

The decay and undershoot can be minimized by increasing the time

constant  =RC.
 Example 2.1

C = 500 pF
Current
Rleak = 10 G
Ra = 5 M 
What is fc,low ?

1 1
f c ,low    64 Hz
2RC 2 (5 10 )(500 10 )
6 12

for R a  500 M
1
f c ,low   0.64 Hz
2 (500 10 )(500 10 )
6 12
High Frequency Equivalent Circuit

Vo  j  K s j

X  j  j  1
Rs
 Temperature Measurement
The human body temperature is a good indicator of the health and
physiological performance of different parts of the human body.

Temperature indicates:
-Shock by measuring the big-toe temperature
-Infection by measuring skin temperature
-Arthritis by measuring temperature at the joint
-Body temperature during surgery
-Infant body temperature inside incubators

Temperature sensors type

-Thermocouples
-Thermistors
-Radiation and fiber-optic detectors
-p-n junction semiconductor (2 mV/oC)
 Thermocouple
Electromotive force (emf) exists across a junction of two dissimilar
metals. Two independent effects cause this phenomena:
1- Contact of two unlike metals and the junction temperature
(Peltier)
T1 A T2  T1
B B

E = f(T1 –T2)

2- Temperature gradients along each single conductor (Lord Kelvin)

E = f (T12 - T22)
Advantages of Thermocouple
fast response (=1ms), small size (12 μm diameter), ease of fabrication
and long-term stability
Disadvantages
Small output voltage, low sensitivity, need for a reference temperature
 Thermocouple
Empirical calibration data are usually curve-fitted with a power
series expansion that yield the Seebeck voltage.

T1 A T2  T1
B B

E = f(T1 –T2)

1 T: Temperature in Celsius
E  aT  bT 2  ....
2 Reference junction is at 0 oC
 Thermocouple Laws
1- Homogeneous Circuit law: A circuit composed of a single
homogeneous metal, one cannot maintain an electric current by the
application of heat alone. See Fig. 2.12b

2- Intermediate Metal Law: The net emf in a circuit consisting of an

interconnection of a number of unlike metals, maintained at the same
temperature, is zero. See Fig. 2.12c
-Second law makes it possible for lead wire connections

3- Successive or Intermediate Temperatures Law: See Fig. 2.12d

The third law makes it possible for calibration curves derived for a
given reference-junction temperature to be used to determine the
calibration curves for another reference temperature.

1 1
E23  E13  E12  a1T3  b1T3  a1T2  b1T2
2 2 T1 T2 T3
 Thermoelectric Sensitivity 
For small changes in temperature: E  T
T1 A T2
B

1 2 E = f(T1 –T2)
E  aT  bT    
2
Differentiate above equation to find , the Seebeck coefficient, or
thermoelectric sensitivity. Generally in the range of 6.5 - 80 V/oC at
20 oC.

dE
  a  bT    
dT
 Thermistors
Thermistors are semiconductors made of ceramic materials
whose resistance decreases as temperature increases.

Advantages
-Small in size (0.5 mm in diameter)
-Large sensitivity to temperature changes (-3 to -5% /oC)
-Blood velocity
-Temperature differences in the same organ
-Excellent long-term stability characteristics (R=0.2% /year)

Disadvantages
-Nonlinear
-Self heating
-Limited range
 Circuit Connections of Thermistors
Bridge Connection to measure voltage

R1 R3

V vb
va

R2
Rt

Amplifier Connection to measure currents

 Thermistors Resistance
Relationship between Resistance and Temperature at zero-power
resistance of thermistor.
1000
[  (T0 T ) / TT0 ]
Rt  R0 e
100

 = material constant for thermistor, K

10

Resistance ratio, R/R25º C

(2500 to 5000 K)
To = standard reference temperature, K 1

To = 293.15 K = 20C = 68F 0.1

Temperature coefficient  0.01

1 dRt 
  2 (% / K ) 0.001
Rt dT T
 is a nonlinear function of temperature  50 0 50 100 150 200
Temperature, ° C
(a)
Figure 2.13 (a) Typical thermistor zero-power resistance ratio-temperature
characteristics for various materials.
 Voltage-Versus-Current Characteristics
The temperature of the thermistor is that of its surroundings.
However, above specific current, current flow generates heat that
make the temperature of the thermistor above the ambient
temperature. B

k

100

10

k
M

k
A


0
1

1
10
C

0
10
Water

Voltage, V
10

k
10
Air
1
0. W
1 1 10 10
1.0 m m m 0
W W W m
W

0.1
0.10 1.0 10.0 100.0
Current, mA
(b)
Figure 2.13 (b) Thermistor voltage-versus-current characteristic for a thermistor in air and
water. The diagonal lines with a positive slope give linear resistance values and show the
degree of thermistor linearity at low currents. The intersection of the thermistor curves and the
diagonal lines with the negative slope give the device power dissipation. Point A is the
maximal current value for no appreciable self-heat. Point B is the peak voltage. Point C is the
maximal safe continuous current in air.
 Radiation Thermometry
The higher the temperature of a body the higher is the
electromagnetic radiation (EM).

Electromagnetic Radiation Transducers - Convert energy in the

form of EM radiation into an electrical current or potential, or modify
an electrical current or potential.
Medical thermometry maps the surface temperature of a body with a
sensitivity of a few tenths of a Kelvin.

Application
Breast cancer, determining location and extent of arthritic
disturbances, measure the depth of tissue destruction from frostbite
and burns, detecting various peripheral circulatory disorders (venous
thrombosis, carotid artery occlusions)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackbody_radiation
 Radiation Thermometry
Sources of EM radiation: Acceleration of charges can arise
from thermal energy. Charges movement cause the radiation of
EM waves.
The amount of energy in a photon is inversely related to the wavelength:

1
E

19
1 eV  1.602  10 J
Thermal sources approximate ideal blackbody radiators:

Blackbody radiator: an object which absorbs all incident radiation,

and emits the maximum possible thermal radiation (0.7 m to 1mm).
 Power Emitted by a Blackbody Stefan-Boltzman law
Power emitted at a specific wavelength:
C1

Spectral radient emittance, W-cm-2·mm-1

100%

W  0.00312
m= 9.66 m

 C2
 0.003 80

 e
5 T
 1 60

  0.002

% Total power
40

Unit : W/cm2. m 0.001

20
C1 = 3.74x104 (W. m4/cm2) T = 300 K

C2 = 1.44x104 (m. K) 5 10 15 20 25
Wavelength, m
T = blackbody temperature, K
 = emissivity (ideal blackbody = 1) (a) Spectral radiant emittance versus
wavelength for a blackbody at 300 K on
Wavelength for which W is maximum: the left vertical axis; percentage of total
energy on the right vertical axis.
2898
m   m 
T
m varies inversely with T - Wien’s displacement law
Power Emitted by a Blackbody Stefan-Boltzman law
100%

C1
m= 9.66 m
0.00312

W 
80

Spectral radient emittance, W-cm-2·mm-1

0.003

 C2 T 
 e
5
 1
60
0.002

  40

0.001

% Total power
20
Total radiant power: T = 300 K

2 5
Wavelength, m
10 15 20 25

Wt   W d  T 4 80% of the total radiant power is found

in the wavelength band from 4 to 25 m
1

Unit : W/cm2. m
  Stefan' s constant  5.67 10-12 (W / cm 2 ) K 4
 Thermal Detector Specifications
Fused silica
100
Infrared Instrument Lens Properties; Sapphire
Arsenic trisulfide
-pass wavelength > 1 m Thallium

-high sensitivity to the weak bromide

iodine

radiated signal 50

-Short response
-Respond to large bandwidth
10

Thermal Detectors 0
1 10 100

-Law sensitivity Wavelength, m

Fig. a
-Respond to all wavelength All thermal detectors

Photon (Quantum) Detector 100

-higher sensitivity Indium antimonide (InSb)

(photovoltaic)
-Respond to a limited wavelength 60
Lead sulfide (PbS)
Fig. a) Spectral transmission for a
20
number of optical materials. (b)
0
Spectral sensitivity of photon and 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
thermal detectors. Wavelength, m Fig. b
 Radiation Thermometer System

Figure 2.15 Stationary chopped-beam radiation

thermometer
 Application of Radiation Thermometer

Measuring the core body temperature of the human by measuring

the magnitude of infrared radiation emitted from the tympanic
membrane and surrounding ear canal.
Response time is 0.1 second
Accuracy of 0.1 oC
 Fiber-Optic Temperature Sensors
-Small and compatible with biological implantation.
-Nonmetallic sensor so it is suitable for temperature measurements
in a strong electromagnetic heating field.

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) semiconductor temperature probe.

The amount of power absorbed increases with temperature
 Optical Measurements
Applications:
1- Clinical-chemistry lab (analyze sample of blood and tissue)
2- Cardiac Catheterization (measure oxygen saturation of
hemoglobin and cardiac output)

Components: Sources,
filters, and detectors.

General block diagram of an

optical instrument. (b) Highest
efficiency is obtained by using an
intense lamp, lenses to gather and
focus the light on the sample in the
cuvette, and a sensitive detector.
(c) Solid-state lamps and detectors
may simplify the system.
 Radiation Sources
1- Tungsten Lamps
- Coiled filaments to increase emissivity and efficiency.
- Ribbon filaments for uniform radiation
- Tungsten-halogen lamps have iodine or bromine to maintain more
than 90% of their initial radiant.

Figure 2.18 Spectral characteristics of sources, (a) Light sources, Tungsten (W) at 3000 K
has a broad spectral output. At 2000 K, output is lower at all wavelengths and peak output
shifts to longer wavelengths.
 Radiation Sources
2- ARC Discharges
- Low-pressure lamp: Fluorescent lamp filled with Argon-Mercury
(Ar-Hg) mixture. Accelerated electron hit the mercury atom and cause
the radiation of 250 nm (5 eV) wavelength which is absorbed by
phosphor. Phosphor will emits light of longer visible wavelengths.
- Fluorescent lamp has low radiant so it is not used for optical
instrument, but can be turned on in 20 sec and used for tachistoscope
to provide brief stimuli to the eye.
- High pressure lamp: mercury, sodium, xenon lamps are compact and
can provide high radiation per unit area. Used in optical instruments.
 Radiation Sources
3- Light-Emitting Diodes (LED)
A p-n junction devices that are optimized to radiant output.
-GaAs has a higher band gap and radiate at 900 nm. Switching time 10
nsec.
-GaP LED has a band gap of 2.26 eV and radiate at 700 nm
-GaAsP absorb two photons of 940 nm wavelength and emits one
photon of 540 nm wavelength.

Advantages of LED: compact, rugged, economical, and nearly

monochromatic.

Figure 2.18 Spectral

characteristics of sources,
(a) Light-emitting diodes
yield a narrow spectral
output with GaAs in the
infrared, GaP in the red, and
GaAsP in the green.
 Radiation Sources
4- Laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)
-He-Ne lasers operate at 633 nm with 100 mW power.
-Argon laser operates at 515 nm with the highest continuous power
level with 1-15 W power.
-CO2 lasers provide 50-500 W of continuous wave output power.
-Ruby laser is a solid state lasers operate in pulsed mode and provide
693 nm with 1-mJ energy.

The most medical use of the laser is to mend tear in the retina.
Figure 2.18 Spectral
characteristics of
sources, (a)
Monochromatic outputs
from common lasers are
shown by dashed lines: Ar,
515 nm; HeNe, 633 nm;
ruby, 693 nm; Nd, 1064
nm
 Optical Filters
Optical filters are used to control the distribution of radiant power or
wavelength.
Power Filters
-Glass partially silvered: most of power are reflected
-Carbon particles suspended in plastic: most of power are absorbed
-Two Polaroid filters: transmit light of particular state of polarization
Wavelength Filters
-Color Filters: colored glass transmit certain wavelengths
-Gelatin Filters: a thin film of organic dye dried on a glass (Kodak 87)
or combining additives with glass when it is in molten state (corning 5-
56 ).
-Interference Filters: Depositing a reflective stack of layers on both
sides of a thicker spacer layer. LPF, BPF, HPF of bandwidth from 0.5
to 200nm.
-Diffraction grating Filters: produce a wavelength spectrum.
 Optical Filters
Figure 2.18 Spectral characteristics of filters (b) Filters. A Corning
5-65 glass filter passes a blue wavelength band. A Kodak 87 gelatin
filter passes infrared and blocks visible wavelengths. Germanium
lenses pass long wavelengths that cannot be passed by glass.
Hemoglobin Hb and oxyhemoglobin HbO pass equally at 805 nm and
have maximal difference at 660 nm.

Optical method for measuring fat in the body (fat absorption 930 nm
Water absorption 970 nm
 Radiation Sensors
Classifications of Radiation Sensors
Thermal Sensors: absorbs radiation and change the temperature of
the sensor.
-Change in output could be due to change in the ambient temperature or source
temperature.
-Sensitivity does not change with wavelength
-Slow response
Example: Pyroelectric sensor: absorbs radiation and convert it to heat
which change the electric polarization of the crystals.

Quantum Sensors: absorb energy from individual photons and use it

to release electrons from the sensor material.
-sensitive over a restricted band of wavelength
-Fast response
-Less sensitive to ambient temperature
Example: Eye, Phototube, photodiode, and photographic emulsion.
 Photoemissive Sensors
Phototube: have photocathode coated with alkali metals. A radiation
photon with energy cause electron to jump from cathode to anode.
Photon energies below 1 eV are not large enough to overcome the work
functions, so wavelength over 1200nm cannot be detected.

Photomultiplier An incoming photon strikes the photocathode and liberates an

electron. This electron is accelerated toward the first dynode, which is 100 V more
positive than the cathode. The impact liberates several electrons by secondary
emission. They are accelerated toward the second dynode, which is 100 V more
positive than the first dynode, This electron multiplication continues until it reaches
the anode, where currents of about 1 A flow through RL. Time response < 10 nsec
 Photoconductive Cells
Photoresistors: a photosensitive crystalline materials such as
cadmium Sulfide (CdS) or lead sulfide (PbS) is deposited on a
ceramic substance.

The resistance decrease of the ceramic material with input radiation.

This is true if photons have enough energy to cause electron to move
from the valence band to the conduction band.
 Photojunction Sensors
Photojunction sensors are formed from p-n junctions and are usually
made of silicon. If a photon has enough energy to jump the band gap,
hole-electron pairs are produced that modify the junction
characteristics.
Photodiode: With reverse biasing, the
reverse photocurrent increases linearly
with an increase in radiation.

Phototransistor: radiation generate base

current which result in the generation of a
large current flow from collector to
emitter.
Response time = 10 microsecond
Figure 2.22 Voltage-current characteristics of irradiated silicon p-n junction. For 0
irradiance, both forward and reverse characteristics are normal. For 1 mW/cm 2, open-
circuit voltage is 500 mV and short-circuit current is 8 A.
 Photovoltaic Sensors
Photovoltaic sensors is a p-n junction where the voltage increases as
the radiation increases.

Figure 2.18 Spectral characteristics of detectors, (c) Detectors. The S4 response is

a typical phototube response. The eye has a relatively narrow response, with colors
indicated by VBGYOR. CdS plus a filter has a response that closely matches that of
the eye. Si p-n junctions are widely used. PbS is a sensitive infrared detector. InSb is
useful in far infrared. Note: These are only relative responses. Peak responses of
different detectors differ by 107.
 Optical Combinations
Total effective irradiance, is
found by breaking up the
spectral curves into many
narrow bands and then
multiplying each together and
adding the resulting
increments.

Ee   S  F D 
S= relative source output;
F= relative filter transmission
D= relative sensor responsivity
Figure 2.18 Spectral characteristics of combinations thereof (d) Combination.
Indicated curves from (a), (b), and (c) are multiplied at each wavelength to yield (d),
which shows how well source, filter, and detector are matched.
 Project1 (Sensors)
Resistive Sensors
Strain Gages (Bounded and Unbonded) (Niraj)
Blood Pressure Sensors (KJ)
Inductive Sensor (LVDT)
Capacitive Sensors
Piezoelectric Sensors
Temperature Sensors (Thermocouple, Thermistors)
Radiation Thermometry (Sultana)
Infrared Thermometer Sensors
Fiber Optic temperature Sensors (HL)
Radiation Sources (ARC, LEDs) (Jeremiah)
Thermal Sensors (Kendal)
Quantum Sensors
Photoemissive Sensors
Photoconductive cells (Kelli)
Photojunction Sensors
Photovoltaic Sensors