INTRODUCTION TO

NORMAL
PHYSIOLOGY
Physiology of cells. Electrical
phenomena in excitable tissues.
DEFINITION

 Physiology is the study of normal function

within living creatures. It is a sub-section of
biology, covering a range of topics that include
organs, anatomy, cells, biological compounds,
and how they all interact to make life possible.
 Physiology can be considered a study of the
functions and processes that create life
A BREAF HISTORY OF PHYSIOLOGY :
CLAUDIUS GALENUS (C.130-200 AD)
JEAN FERNEL (1497-1558)
OTHER RESEARCHERS WHO CONTRIBUTED TO
THE HISTORY OF PHYSIOLOGY :
 Joseph Lister, 1858 - initially studied coagulation
and inflammation following injury, he went on to discover
and utilize lifesaving antiseptics
 Ivan Pavlov, 1891 - conditioned physiological responses in
dogs
 August Krogh, 1910 - won the Nobel Prize for discovering
how blood flow is regulated in capillaries
 Andrew Huxley and Alan Hodgkin, 1952 - discovered the
ionic mechanism by which nerve impulses are transmitted
 Andrew Huxley and Hugh Huxley, 1954 - made advances
in the study of muscles with the discovery of sliding
filaments in skeletal muscle
BRANCHES :
 Cell physiology - studying the way cells work and interact; cell physiology
predominantly concentrates on membrane transport and neuron
transmission.
 Systems physiology - this discipline focuses on the computational and
mathematical modeling of complex biological systems. It tries to describe
the way individual cells or components of a system converge to respond
as a whole. They often investigate metabolic networks and cell signaling.
 Evolutionary physiology - studying the way systems, or parts of systems,
have adapted and changed over multiple generations. Research topics
cover a lot of ground including the role of behavior in evolution, sexual
selection, and physiological changes in relation to geographic variation.
 Exercise physiology - as the name suggests, this is the study of the
physiology of physical exercise. This might include research into
bioenergetics, biochemistry, cardiopulmonary function, biomechanics,
hematology, skeletal muscle physiology, neuroendocrine function, and
nervous system function.
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION WITHIN THE
HUMAN BODY
ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE HUMAN BODY:

 Circulatory system - including the heart, the blood vessels, properties of

the blood, and how circulation works in sickness and health.
 Respiratory system - consisting of the nose, nasopharynx, trachea, and

lungs. This system brings in oxygen and expels carbon dioxide and water.
 Digestive/excretory system - this domain charts the movement of solids

from the mouth to the anus and includes study of the spleen, liver, and
pancreas, the conversion of food into fuel and its consequent expulsion
from the body.

 Immune system - the body's natural defense system is comprised of white

blood cells, the thymus, and lymph systems. A complex array of receptors
and molecules combine to protect the host from attacks by pathogens.
Molecules such as antibodies and cytokines feature heavily.
 Renal/urinary system - including the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and

urethra, this system removes water from the blood, produces urine, and
carries away waste.
 Integumentary system - the skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous

glands (secreting an oily or waxy substance).

ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE
HUMAN BODY:
 Musculoskeletal system - the skeleton and muscles, tendons,
ligaments, and cartilage. Bone marrow - the site of red blood cell
creation - and how bones store calcium and phosphate are included.
 Nervous system - the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)
and the peripheral nervous system. Study of the nervous system
includes research into the senses, memory, emotion, movement, and
thought.
 Endocrine system - the study of endocrine hormones that carry signals
throughout the organism, helping it to respond in concert. The principal
endocrine glands - the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas,
parathyroids, and gonads - are a major focus, but nearly all organs
release endocrine hormones.

 Reproductive system - consisting of the gonads and the sex organs.

Study of this system also includes investigating the way a fetus is
created and nurtured for 9 months.
ITS ABOUT IRRITATION
 Irritability- the ability to respond to the irritating
factors action by metabolism change. The
irritability during evolution has reached the best
expression and has received the name an
excitability ( is an ability of a tissue to respond to
an irritation specializedly , singlemindedly, and
with the maximal velocity.
 Excitement- is a complex (complicated) biological
process expressing by response reaction to an
irritation.
 A measure of an excitability is the threshold of
stimulation – minimal stimulus force, capable to
cause excitation.
 IRRITATION FORCE LAW :
 The more force of an irritation, the more strong
is answer-back reaction ( up to known limits).The
further stimulus force augmentation any more
does not lead to the answer- back reaction
increasing, and even can cause return reaction,
down to its disappearance.
 It is explained by the fact that each functional
unit of tissues has its exaltation threshold.
 That’s why while working the threshold
stimulus, those fibers, for which this stimulus is
of a such size are only involved in the answer.
Others don’t react.
THE LAW «NOTHING» OR
«EVERYTHING »
Is shown at the cardiac muscle work analysis.
According to this law, subliminal stimuli,
acting to a cardiac muscle, don’t cause an
answer in it (its nothing), and threshold and
epiliminal stimuli cause answer-back reaction
of the same size ( its named everything).
* The stimuli with a sixe that is less than a
threshold one are called subliminal ones…
* The stimuli on force exceeding a threshold of
stimulation are called epiliminal ones…
 THE LAW OF FORCE -TIME

With the augmentation of a stimulus force it is

required less time of its influence to tissue for
answer-back reaction reception. The relation
between the duration and force can be
expressed
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
 – the potential difference between inside and
outside of the cell under resting condition

 The condition of the muscle during resting

membrane potential is called polarized
state.
 In human skeletal muscle, the resting
membrane potential is -90mV.
ACTION POTENTIAL
When the muscle is stimulated , a series of
changes occur in the membrane potential
 There are 2 phases:
 1. Depolarization – is membrane potentials
difference decreasing .
 2. Repolarization – its potentials difference
restoration.
ACTION POTENTIAL CURVE
 1. Latent period
 2. Firing level or critical depolarization level
 3. Overshoot
 4. Negative after potential
 5. Positive after potential