3.

7 INTERNAL FORCES
The resisting forces take the
form of:
BENDING FORCE
SHEAR FORCE
TORSIONAL FORCE
AXIAL FORCE
3.8 LOAD DISTRIBUTION
 How Loads Are Distributed?
THE INFLUENCING PARAMETERS ARE:
Type and depth of deck ❏ Size and position of loads
Span length
Spacing between stringers
Spacing of secondary members
Stiffness of primary members
Stiffness of secondary members
Type of bracing employed (if any)
AASHTO Standard Specifications
UTILIZE A DISTRIBUTION FACTOR BASED ON THE
FOLLOWING CRITERIA:

Type of floor

Stringer spacing
AASHTO LRFD
CONSIDERED THE FOLLOWING:

 Deck thickness
 Span length
Stringer Stiffness
Table 3.6 AASHTO Standard Specifications Wheel Load Distribution in Longitudinal Beams.
(NOTE: Values are per wheel, multiply by
1/2 if using axle value or lane load.). S = Average Stringer Spacing in Feet
 EXAMPLE

Figure 3.21
Illustrates a typical scenario where an H20-
44
truck is loading an interior stringer of a slab-
on-stringer superstructure.
H20-44 TRUCK DATA:
Weight:
8,000 lb (front axle)
32,000 lb (rear axle)
TOTAL= 40,000 lb
Therefore, one set of front and rear wheels would be half this amount or 20,000 lb or 20 kips.
Consulting Table 3.6, for a concrete deck (floor) with two or more lanes and a stringer spacing of less
than 14 ft, the resultant distribution factor for an interior stringer will be:

This value would be multiplied by one set of front and rear wheels of the truck

The distributed load used would be:

The followings are equations of calculating live load distribution factors in
AASHTO LRFD.

For concrete deck on stringer type bridges, the distribution factor

for
moment in interior stringers are:

One design lane loaded:

Two or more design lanes loaded:

The live load distribution factor for shear in interior stringers are:

One design lane loaded: Two or more design lanes loaded:

 To apply these equations, the bridge has to meet the following conditions:

Where : S = spacing of stringers (ft)

L = span length (ft)
K = longitudinal stiffness parameter of the stringer ()
g

t = depth of concrete slab (in)

S
 

Where
n = ration of modulus of elasticity between stringer material and concrete deck
I = moment of inertia of the stringer (in )
4

A = section area of the stringer ()

e = distance between the centers of gravity of the stringer and the deck (in)
g
3.8.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOAD
DISTRIBUTION
 The following offers a general overview of some of the major types of
floor systems and the related AASHTO requirements for distribution of
loads.

 Interior Longitudinal Members.

The live load distribution factor of an interior stringer is determined

from Table 3.6 (AASHTO 3.23.1), or AASHTO LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2b-
1.
Exterior Longitudinal Members

For a slab-on-stringer bridge with four or more stringers,

The following distribution factors are used in AASHTO
Standard Specifications:
NOTE:

When the spacing between an exterior and adjacent interior

stringer exceeds 14 ft, the flooring between the two stringers is

taken to act as a simple beam with the load on each stringer

being the resulting wheel load reaction.

AASHTO LRFD Specifications
If only one lane is loaded;

The load distribution factors for moment and shear

can be obtained by positioning the truck wheel loads 2
feet from the parapet, and calculating the reaction
from the exterior girder, assuming the deck is simply
supported by the girders in the transverse direction.
Two or more lanes are loaded;

Load distribution factor for moment:

Load distribution factor for shear:

Transverse Members

When there are no longitudinal members present

and the deck is supported entirely by floor beams,
the distribution factors, as outlined may be used.
AASHTO Table 3.23.3.1

AASHTO LRFD Table 4.6.2.2.2f-1,

 For concrete deck bridges

The distribution factors for moment and shear

0
Where:
S= spacing of the transverse beams
Multibeam Concrete Decks (Concrete Panels)

The AASHTO Standard Specifications takes into account the

stiffness of the deck panels through use of a stiffness
parameter C which is given as
Where;
W = width of entire bridge perpendicular to beams, ft
L = span length taken parallel to longitudinal girders, ft
I = moment of inertia
J = torsion constant
μ = poisson’s ratio for concrete, poisson’s ratio can be assumed to be 0.2
K = stiffness constant

The boundary within which the stiffness parameter C falls and its value are used to
define a parameter D, which is given by:
The resultant distribution factor can be calculated using the equation:
3.9 CONCRETE DECK SLABS
Effective Span Length

The size of the effective span length is dependent on:

Whether the slab is continuous over more than two supports

The type of supports (e.g., steel or concrete stringers)

How the slab is integrated with the supports

Calculation of Bending Moment

1. Main Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic

The live load moment for slab spans simply supported in the
transverse direction is calculated as follows:
 If the slab is continuous over more than two supports,
AASHTO introduces a multiplier of 0.8 which is applied to both
positive and negative moments. This modifies Equation 3.28
to become:

The variable definitions are the same as for Equation 3.28. Both

equations are applicable to effective spans which are between 2 ft

and 24 ft inclusive (0.61 m to 7.31 m).
 The vehicle impact factor applied to live loads will
always be 30 percent.

NOTE:

I cannot be greater than 30 percent, so always use an impact factor of

1.30 in calculating the effects of live load on a concrete slab.
2. Main Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic

AASHTO specifies that the slab be analyzed as a beam

having an effective width E, a length S, and a depth
as described, such that
NOTE:

The effective width cannot be greater than 7.0 ft (2.13

m). This value is given for truck wheel loading. If lane
loading governs, though, a width of 2E is to be used.
 If the slab is simply supported, AASHTO specifies
approximate maximum live load moments
3. Dead Load Moments.

For simple spans, the maximum moment for a simply supported

beam under a uniform distributed load

For slabs continuous over more than two supports,

4. Total Factored Moment

For deck slab design, load group I(Table 3.2) should

be used. The load factors for dead load and live load
are 1.30 and 2.17 respectively.
3.9.3
DISTRIBUTION REINFORCEMENT
 To determine the amount of distribution steel required, the amount of

main reinforcement needed is multiplied by a specified percentage

For main reinforcement perpendicular to the direction of traffic:

For main reinforcement parallel to the direction of traffic:

NOTE:

If the main reinforcement is laid perpendicular to traffic, the

distribution steel is to be placed on the middle half of the span, between
stringers. Also, no less than 50 percent of the amount used in the middle
is to be placed in the outer quarters of the span (AASHTO3.24.10.3).
3.9.4 Minimum Slab Thickness
 For reinforced concrete slabs, this means a deck slab whose main
reinforcement is parallel to the direction of traffic. For slabs which are
simply supported, the minimum depth of slab (ft) is given as

When the slab is continuous over more than two supports, the
minimum slab thickness is defined as
3.9.5 Railing Loads
When parapet is not present,
The effective length of slab resisting the post loads is given as

When a parapet is provided, the effective length of slab is defined by the

following:
3.9.7 Slab Reinforcement Details
 Some of the major detailing concerns include, but are not
limited to, the following:

Minimum cover

Length of bars

Spacing between parallel bars

Splicing of bars
3.9.8 Construction, Rehabilitation, and
Maintenance
 The following details some of the more common
methods of extending the service life of concrete bridge
decks.
1. Increased Slab Thickness and Cover

New York State requires 2.5 in (64 mm) of cover on the top surface of slabs which
have an integrated wearing surface.

A minimum cover of 1.5 in (38 mm) is used when a wearing surface is present

The bottom of the slab is usually provided with 1 in (25 mm) of cover.
 2. Coated Reinforcement.

Since early 1980’s, most reinforcing steel used in bridge deck has been
coated with epoxy to inhibit corrosion by limiting the effects of moisture
and chlorides. An epoxy-coated rebar is a standard, deformed bar which
has been blast cleaned, heated, and then subjected to an electrostatic
spray of dry powder. Initially, epoxy-coated bars are specified for the top
mat of reinforcement in concrete bridge decks.
 3. Waterproofing Membrane.
Bridges with a bituminous wearing surface are sometimes equipped
with a waterproofing membrane between the asphalt wearing course and
concrete slab. A waterproofing membrane consists of a preformed layer
of waterproofing material which, when combined with a primer coat,
adheres to the concrete surface protecting it from corrosion caused by
water and deicing chemicals. The primers are generally neoprene, resin,
or solvent based and are applied to the deck with a spray or squeegee.
 4. Drainage
Some of the principal methods for draining runoff from the bridge deck are
as follows:

Deck swales
Weep tubes
Scuppers
Catch basins
Drop inlets
 Deck swales

A deck swale is a V-shaped channel formed by opposing cross-slopes in

the deck cross section; essentially acting as a large gutter.
Weep tubes

A weep tube is a piece of tubing, made out of PVC or

some other material, which extends from the bottom of
the wearing surface through the deck.
Scuppers
Catch basins and Drop Inlets

Catch basins and drop inlets are nodes in a

stormwater collection facility which collect debris and
lower the elevation of upstream and downstream pipes,
respectively.
When designing drainage facilities for a
structure, two important criteria to keep in
mind are that

Drains should be constructed of corrosion resistant

material.

Drains should not discharge on other bridge elements or

traffic passing underneath the structure (AASHTO 1.5).
5. Snow and Ice Removal.
 6. Patching.
When a deck has deteriorated to the point where its
functionality comes into question, a decision by the owner must be
made whether to patch or replace the bridge deck. If the
deterioration is localized enough and the integrity of the deck does
not appear to be compromised, then patching can be an
acceptable alternative to total deck replacement.
 7. Sealing.
In general, protective sealers are available in a variety of forms,
some of the more popular types being

Linseed oil
Rubber and silicon resins
Epoxy based sealants
 8. Cathodic Protection.
There are two general cathodic protection systems in use
today:

Galvanic anode (sacrificial) system

Impressed current system