Cell Structure

& Function

Source: http://koning.ecsu.ctstateu.edu/cell/cell.html
 History of Cell Theory
• mid 1600s – Anton van Leeuwenhoek
– Improved microscope, observed many living cells

• mid 1600s – Robert Hooke

– Observed many cells

• 1850 – Rudolf Virchow

– Proposed that all cells come from existing cells
 Cell Theory
Cells were discovered in 1665 by Robert Hooke.

Early studies of cells were conducted by

- Mathias Schleiden (1838)
- Theodor Schwann (1839)

Schleiden and Schwann proposed the Cell

Theory.

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 Cell Theory
Cell Theory
1. All organisms are composed of cells.
2. Cells are the smallest living things.
3. Cells arise only from pre-existing cells.

All cells today represent a continuous line of

descent from the first living cells.

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 Cell Theory
Cell size is limited.
-As cell size increases, it takes longer for
material to diffuse from the cell membrane
to the interior of the cell.

Surface area-to-volume ratio:

as a cell increases in size, the volume increases
10x faster than the surface area
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Cell Theory

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 Cell Theory
Microscopes are required to visualize cells.

Light microscopes can resolve structures that

are 200nm apart.

Electron microscopes can resolve structures

that are 0.2nm apart.

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 Cell Theory
All cells have certain structures in common.

1. genetic material – in a nucleoid or nucleus

2. cytoplasm – a semifluid matrix
3. plasma membrane – a phospholipid bilayer

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 Definition of Cell

A cell is the smallest unit that is

capable of performing life functions.
 Observing Cells (4.1)
• Light microscope
– Can observe living cells in true color
– Magnification of up to ~1000x
– Resolution ~ 0.2 microns – 0.5 microns
 Observing Cells (4.1)
• Electron Microscopes
– Images are black and white – may be colorized
– Magnifcation up to ~100,000
• Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
– 2-D image
• Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
– 3-D image
SEM

TEM
 Examples of Cells
Amoeba Proteus

Plant Stem

Bacteria

Red Blood Cell

Nerve Cell
 Two Types of Cells

•Prokaryotic
•Eukaryotic
 Prokaryotic
• Do not have
structures
surrounded by
membranes
• Few internal
structures
• One-celled
organisms, Bacteria

http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/prokaryotic_cells.html
 Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic cells lack a membrane-bound
nucleus.
-genetic material is present in the nucleoid

Two types of prokaryotes:

-archaea
-bacteria

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 Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic cells possess
-genetic material in the nucleoid
-cytoplasm
-plasma membrane
-cell wall
-ribosomes
-no membrane-bound organelles

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Prokaryotic Cells

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 Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic cell walls
-protect the cell and maintain cell shape

Bacterial cell walls

-may be composed of peptidoglycan
-may be Gram positive or Gram negative

Archaean cell walls lack peptidoglycan.

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 Prokaryotic Cells
Flagella
-present in some prokaryotic cells
-used for locomotion
-rotary motion propels the cell

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 Prokaryotic Cell Structure
• Prokaryotic Cells are smaller and simpler
in structure than eukaryotic cells.
– Typical prokaryotic cell is __________
– Prokaryotic cells do NOT have:
• Nucleus
• Membrane bound organelles
Prokaryotic Cell
TEM Prokaryotic Cell
 Eukaryotic
• Contain organelles surrounded by membranes
• Most living organisms
Plant Animal

http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/eukaryotic_cells.html
 “Typical” Animal Cell

http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/images/cell.gif
 Plant Cell

http://waynesword.palomar.edu/images/plant3.gif
 Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells
-possess a membrane-bound nucleus
-are more complex than prokaryotic cells
-compartmentalize many cellular functions
within organelles and the endomembrane
system
-possess a cytoskeleton for support and to
maintain cellular structure
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Eukaryotic Cells

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Eukaryotic Cells

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 Eukaryotic Cells
Nucleus
-stores the genetic material of the cell in the
form of multiple, linear chromosomes
-surrounded by a nuclear envelope composed
of 2 phospholipid bilayers
-in chromosomes – DNA is organized with
proteins to form chromatin

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Eukaryotic Cells

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 Eukaryotic Cells

Ribosomes
-the site of protein synthesis in the cell
-composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins
-found within the cytosol of the cytoplasm
and attached to internal membranes

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 Cell Structure
• All Cells have:
– an outermost plasma membrane
– genetic material in the form of DNA
– cytoplasm with ribosomes
Cell Parts
Organelles
Surrounding the Cell
 Cell Membrane
• Outer membrane of cell
that controls movement in
and out of the cell
• Double layer

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html
 Cell Wall
• Most commonly found
in plant cells & bacteria
• Supports & protects
cells

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html
Inside the Cell
 Nucleus

• Directs cell activities

• Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear
membrane
• Contains genetic material - DNA
 Nuclear Membrane
• Surrounds nucleus
• Made of two layers
• Openings allow material
to enter and leave
nucleus

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html
 Chromosomes
• In nucleus
• Made of DNA
• Contain instructions for
traits & characteristics

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html
 Nucleolus
• Inside nucleus
• Contains RNA to build
proteins

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html
 Cytoplasm
• Gel-like mixture
• Surrounded by cell membrane
• Contains hereditary material
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Moves materials around in
cell
• Smooth type: lacks
ribosomes
• Rough type (pictured):
ribosomes embedded in
surface

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html
 Ribosomes
• Each cell contains
thousands
• Make proteins
• Found on ribosomes &
floating throughout the
cell

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html
 Mitochondria
• Produces energy through
chemical reactions – breaking
down fats & carbohydrates
• Controls level of water and
other materials in cell
• Recycles and decomposes
proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html
 Golgi Bodies
• Protein 'packaging
plant'
• Move materials within
the cell
• Move materials out of
the cell

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html
 Lysosome
• Digestive 'plant' for proteins,
fats, and carbohydrates
• Transports undigested material
to cell membrane for removal
• Cell breaks down if lysosome
structure
is disrupted.

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 Vacuoles
• Membrane-bound sacs
for storage, digestion,
and waste removal
• Contains water solution
• Help plants maintain
shape

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html
 Chloroplast
• Usually found in plant
cells
• Contains green
chlorophyll
• Where photosynthesis
takes place

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html
1. Plasma Membrane
• All membranes are phospholipid bilayers
with embedded proteins

• The outer plasma membrane

– isolates cell contents
– controls what gets in and out of the cell
– receives signals
2. Genetic material in the form of
DNA

– Prokaryotes – no membrane around

the DNA (no nucleus)

– Eukaryotes – DNA is within a

membrane (there is nucleus)
3. Cytoplasm with ribosomes
– Cytoplasm – fluid area inside outer
plasma membrane and outside DNA
region

– Ribosomes – make proteins

 Cell Structure
• All Cells have:
– an outermost plasma membrane
– genetic material in the form of DNA
– cytoplasm with ribosomes
 Why Are Cells So Small? (4.2)
• Cells need sufficient surface area to allow adequate
transport of nutrients in and wastes out.
• As cell volume increases, so does the need for the
transporting of nutrients and wastes.
• However, as cell volume increases the surface area
of the cell does not expand as quickly.
– If the cell’s volume gets too large it cannot transport
enough wastes out or nutrients in.
• Thus, surface area limits cell volume/size.
 Why Are Cells So Small?
• Strategies for increasing surface area, so
cell can be larger:
– “Frilly” edged…….
– Long and narrow…..
• Round cells will always be small.
 Eukaryotic Cells
• Structures in all eukaryotic cells
– Nucleus
– Ribosomes
– Endomembrane System
• Endoplasmic reticulum – smooth and rough
• Golgi apparatus
• Vesicles
– Mitochondria
– Cytoskeleton
 NUCLEUS
CYTOSKELETON

RIBOSOMES

MITOCHONDRION ROUGH ER

CYTOPLASM SMOOTH ER

CENTRIOLES

GOLGI BODY

PLASMA LYSOSOME
MEMBRANE VESICLE
Fig. 4-15b, p.59
 Nucleus (4.5)
• Function – isolates the cell’s genetic material,
DNA
– DNA directs/controls the activities of the cell
• DNA determines which types of RNA are made

• The RNA leaves the nucleus and directs the synthesis of

proteins in the cytoplasm at a ______________
 Nucleus
• Structure
– Nuclear envelope
• Two Phospholipid bilayers with protein
lined pores
– Each pore is a ring of 8 proteins with an
opening in the center of the ring
– Nucleoplasm – fluid of the nucleus
Nuclear pore bilayer facing cytoplasm Nuclear envelope

bilayer facing
nucleoplasm

Fig. 4-17, p.61

 Nucleus
• DNA is arranged in chromosomes
– Chromosome – fiber of DNA with proteins
attached

– Chromatin – all of the cell’s DNA and the

associated proteins
 Nucleus
• Structure, continued
– Nucleolus
• Area of condensed DNA
• Where ribosomal subunits are made
– Subunits exit the nucleus via nuclear pores
ADD
THE
LABELS
 Endomembrane System (4.6 – 4.9)
• Series of organelles responsible for:
– Modifying protein chains into their final
form
– Synthesizing of lipids
– Packaging of fully modified proteins and
lipids into vesicles for export or use in the
cell
– And more that we will not cover!
 Structures of the
Endomembrane System
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
– Continuous with the outer membrane of
the nuclear envelope
– Two forms - smooth and rough
• Transport vesicles
• Golgi apparatus
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

– The ER is continuous with the outer

membrane of the nuclear envelope

– There are 2 types of ER:

• Rough ER – has ribosomes attached
• Smooth ER – no ribosomes attached
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
• Network of flattened membrane sacs create a
“maze”
– RER contains enzymes that recognize and modify
proteins

• Ribosomes are attached to the outside of the

RER and make it appear rough
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Function RER
• Proteins are modified as they move through
the RER
• Once modified, the proteins are packaged in
transport vesicles for transport to the Golgi
body
 Endomembrane System
• Smooth ER (SER)
– Tubular membrane structure
– Continuous with RER
– No ribosomes attached
• Function SER
– Lipids are made inside the SER
• fatty acids, phospholipids, sterols..
– Lipids are packaged in transport vesicles and sent
to the Golgi
 Endomembrane System
Vacuoles
-membrane-bound structures with various
functions depending on the cell type

There are different types of vacuoles:

-central vacuole in plant cells
-contractile vacuole of some protists
-vacuoles for storage

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 Endomembrane System
Endomembrane system
-a series of membranes throughout the
cytoplasm
-divides cell into compartments where
different cellular functions occur
1. endoplasmic reticulum
2. Golgi apparatus
3. lysosomes
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 Endomembrane System
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
-membranes that create a network of
channels throughout the cytoplasm
-attachment of ribosomes to the membrane
gives a rough appearance
-synthesis of proteins to be secreted, sent to
lysosomes or plasma membrane

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 Endomembrane System
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
-relatively few ribosomes attached
-functions:
-synthesis of membrane lipids
-calcium storage
-detoxification of foreign substances

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Endomembrane System
 Endomembrane System
Golgi apparatus
-flattened stacks of interconnected
membranes
-packaging and distribution of materials to
different parts of the cell
-synthesis of cell wall components

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 Endomembrane System
Lysosomes
-membrane bound vesicles containing
digestive enzymes to break down
macromolecules
-destroy cells or foreign matter that the cell
has engulfed by phagocytosis

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80
 Endomembrane System
Microbodies
-membrane bound vesicles
-contain enzymes
-not part of the endomembrane system
-glyoxysomes in plants contain enzymes for
converting fats to carbohydrates
-peroxisomes contain oxidative enzymes and
catalase
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 Golgi Apparatus
• Golgi Apparatus
– Stack of flattened membrane sacs
• Function Golgi apparatus
– Completes the processing substances received
from the ER
– Sorts, tags and packages fully processed proteins
and lipids in vesicles
 Golgi Apparatus
• Golgi apparatus receives transport vesicles
from the ER on one side of the organelle
– Vesicle binds to the first layer of the Golgi and its
contents enter the Golgi
 Golgi Apparatus
– The proteins and lipids are modified as they pass
through layers of the Golgi
– Molecular tags are added to the fully modified
substances
• These tags allow the substances to be sorted and
packaged appropriately.
• Tags also indicate where the substance is to be
shipped.
Golgi Apparatus
 Transport Vesicles
• Transport Vesicles
– Vesicle = small membrane bound sac
– Transport modified proteins and lipids from the
ER to the Golgi apparatus (and from Golgi to final
destination)
 Endomembrane System
• Putting it all together
– DNA directs RNA synthesis  RNA exits
nucleus through a nuclear pore  ribosome
 protein is made  proteins with proper
code enter RER  proteins are modified in
RER and lipids are made in SER  vesicles
containing the proteins and lipids bud off
from the ER
 Endomembrane System
• Putting it all together
ER vesicles merge with Golgi body 
proteins and lipids enter Golgi  each is
fully modified as it passes through layers of
Golgi  modified products are tagged,
sorted and bud off in Golgi vesicles  …
 Endomembrane System
• Putting it all together
Golgi vesicles either merge with the plasma
membrane and release their contents OR
remain in the cell and serve a purpose
 Vesicles
• Vesicles - small membrane bound sacs
– Examples
• Golgi and ER transport vesicles
• Peroxisome
– Where fatty acids are metabolized
– Where hydrogen peroxide is detoxified
• Lysosome
– contains digestive enzymes
– Digests unwanted cell parts and other wastes
 Lysosomes (4.10)
• The lysosome is an example of an organelle
made at the Golgi apparatus.
– Golgi packages digestive enzymes in a vesicle. The
vesicle remains in the cell and:
• Digests unwanted or damaged cell parts
• Merges with food vacuoles and digest the contents

• Figure 4.10A
 Lysosomes (4.11)
• Tay-Sachs disease occurs when the lysosome
is missing the enzyme needed to digest a lipid
found in nerve cells.
– As a result the lipid accumulates and nerve cells
are damaged as the lysosome swells with
undigested lipid.
 Mitochondria (4.15)
• Function – synthesis of ATP
– 3 major pathways involved in ATP production
1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs Cycle
3. Electron transport system (ETS)
 Mitochondria
• Structure:
– ~1-5 microns
– Two membranes
• Outer membrane
• Inner membrane - Highly folded
– Folds called cristae
– Intermembrane space (or outer compartment)
– Matrix
• DNA and ribosomes in matrix
Mitochondria
 Mitochondria (4.15)
• Function – synthesis of ATP
– 3 major pathways involved in ATP production
1. Glycolysis - cytoplasm
2. Krebs Cycle - matrix
3. Electron transport system (ETS) - intermembrane
space
 Mitochondria
Mitochondria
-organelles present in all types of eukaryotic
cells
-contain oxidative metabolism enzymes for
transferring the energy within
macromolecules to ATP
-found in all types of eukaryotic cells

98
 Mitochondria
-surrounded by 2 membranes
-smooth outer membrane
-folded inner membrane with layers
called cristae
-matrix is within the inner membrane
-intermembrane space is located between the
two membranes
-contain their own DNA
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Mitochondria

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