Chapter 6

A Tour of the Cell

PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations for

Biology
Eighth Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece

Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Overview: The Fundamental Units of Life

• All organisms are made of cells

• The cell is the simplest collection of matter

that can live
• Cell structure is correlated to cellular function

• All cells are related by their descent from

earlier cells

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Fig. 6-1
Concept 6.1: To study cells, biologists use
microscopes and the tools of biochemistry
• Though usually too small to be seen by the
unaided eye, cells can be complex

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Microscopy

• Scientists use microscopes to visualize cells

too small to see with the naked eye
• In a light microscope (LM), visible light
passes through a specimen and then through
glass lenses, which magnify the image

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• The quality of an image depends on
– Magnification, the ratio of an object’s image
size to its real size
– Resolution, the measure of the clarity of the
image, or the minimum distance of two
distinguishable points
– Contrast, visible differences in parts of the
sample

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Fig. 6-2
10 m
Human height
1m
Length of some
nerve and

Unaided eye
muscle cells
0.1 m
Chicken egg

1 cm

Frog egg
1 mm

Light microscope
100 µm
Most plant and
animal cells
10 µm
Nucleus
Most bacteria

Electron microscope
Mitochondrion
1 µm

Smallest bacteria
100 nm
Viruses

Ribosomes
10 nm
Proteins
Lipids
1 nm
Small molecules

0.1 nm Atoms
• LMs can magnify effectively to about 1,000
times the size of the actual specimen
• Various techniques enhance contrast and
enable cell components to be stained or
labeled
• Most subcellular structures, including
organelles (membrane-enclosed
compartments), are too small to be resolved by
an LM

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Fig. 6-3
TECHNIQUE RESULTS

(a) Brightfield (unstained

specimen)

50 µm
(b) Brightfield (stained
specimen)

(c) Phase-contrast

(d) Differential-interference-
contrast (Nomarski)

(e) Fluorescence

50 µm
(f) Confocal

50 µm
Fig. 6-3ab

TECHNIQUE RESULTS

(a) Brightfield (unstained

specimen)

50 µm
(b) Brightfield (stained
specimen)
Fig. 6-3cd

TECHNIQUE RESULTS
(c) Phase-contrast

(d) Differential-interference-
contrast (Nomarski)
Fig. 6-3e

TECHNIQUE RESULTS
(e) Fluorescence

50 µm
Fig. 6-3f

TECHNIQUE RESULTS

(f) Confocal

50 µm
• Two basic types of electron microscopes
(EMs) are used to study subcellular structures
• Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs)
focus a beam of electrons onto the surface of a
specimen, providing images that look 3-D
• Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs)
focus a beam of electrons through a specimen
• TEMs are used mainly to study the internal
structure of cells
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Fig. 6-4
TECHNIQUE RESULTS
1 µm
(a) Scanning electron Cilia
microscopy (SEM)

(b) Transmission electron Longitudinal Cross section

microscopy (TEM) section of of cilium
cilium 1 µm
Cell Fractionation

• Cell fractionation takes cells apart and

separates the major organelles from one
another
• Ultracentrifuges fractionate cells into their
component parts
• Cell fractionation enables scientists to
determine the functions of organelles
• Biochemistry and cytology help correlate cell
function with structure
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Fig. 6-5
TECHNIQUE

Homogenization

Tissue
cells Homogenate

1,000 g
(1,000 times the
force of gravity)
10 min Differential centrifugation
Supernatant poured
into next tube

20,000 g
20 min

80,000 g
Pellet rich in 60 min
nuclei and
cellular debris

150,000 g
3 hr
Pellet rich in
mitochondria
(and chloro-
plasts if cells
are from a plant)

Pellet rich in
“microsomes”
(pieces of plasma
membranes and
cells’ internal
membranes)
Pellet rich in
ribosomes
Fig. 6-5a

TECHNIQUE

Homogenization

Tissue
cells Homogenate

Differential centrifugation
Fig. 6-5b
TECHNIQUE (cont.)

1,000 g
(1,000 times the
force of gravity)
10 min
Supernatant poured
into next tube

20,000 g
20 min

80,000 g
60 min
Pellet rich in
nuclei and
cellular debris
150,000 g
3 hr
Pellet rich in
mitochondria
(and chloro-
plasts if cells
are from a plant)
Pellet rich in
“microsomes”
(pieces of plasma
membranes and
cells’ internal
membranes) Pellet rich in
ribosomes
Concept 6.2: Eukaryotic cells have internal
membranes that compartmentalize their functions
• The basic structural and functional unit of every
organism is one of two types of cells:
prokaryotic or eukaryotic
• Only organisms of the domains Bacteria and
Archaea consist of prokaryotic cells
• Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of
eukaryotic cells

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Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

• Basic features of all cells:

– Plasma membrane

– Semifluid substance called cytosol

– Chromosomes (carry genes)

– Ribosomes (make proteins)

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• Prokaryotic cells are characterized by having
– No nucleus

– DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid

– No membrane-bound organelles

– Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane

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Fig. 6-6

Fimbriae

Nucleoid

Ribosomes

Plasma membrane

Bacterial Cell wall

chromosome
Capsule
0.5 µm
(a) A typical Flagella (b) A thin section
rod-shaped through the
bacterium bacterium
Bacillus
coagulans (TEM)
• Eukaryotic cells are characterized by having
– DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a
membranous nuclear envelope
– Membrane-bound organelles

– Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma

membrane and nucleus

• Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than

prokaryotic cells

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• The plasma membrane is a selective barrier
that allows sufficient passage of oxygen,
nutrients, and waste to service the volume of
every cell
• The general structure of a biological membrane
is a double layer of phospholipids

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Fig. 6-7
(a) TEM of a plasma
Outside of cell membrane

Inside of
cell 0.1 µm
Carbohydrate side chain

Hydrophilic
region

Hydrophobic
region

Hydrophilic
Phospholipid Proteins
region
(b) Structure of the plasma membrane
• The logistics of carrying out cellular metabolism
sets limits on the size of cells
• The surface area to volume ratio of a cell is
critical
• As the surface area increases by a factor of n2,
the volume increases by a factor of n3
• Small cells have a greater surface area relative
to volume

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Fig. 6-8
Surface area increases while
total volume remains constant

5
1
1

Total surface area

[Sum of the surface areas
6 150 750
(height  width) of all boxes
sides  number of boxes]

Total volume
[height  width  length 
1 125 125
number of boxes]

Surface-to-volume
(S-to-V) ratio
6 1.2 6
[surface area ÷ volume]
A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell

• A eukaryotic cell has internal membranes that

partition the cell into organelles
• Plant and animal cells have most of the same
organelles

BioFlix: Tour Of An Animal Cell

BioFlix: Tour Of A Plant Cell

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Fig. 6-9a

Nuclear
envelope
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
Nucleolus NUCLEUS
Rough ER Smooth ER
Flagellum Chromatin

Centrosome
Plasma
membrane

CYTOSKELETON:
Microfilaments
Intermediate
filaments
Microtubules
Ribosomes

Microvilli

Golgi
Peroxisome apparatus

Mitochondrion
Lysosome
Fig. 6-9b
Nuclear envelope Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
NUCLEUS Nucleolus
Chromatin
Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
Ribosomes

Central vacuole
Golgi
apparatus
Microfilaments
Intermediate
filaments CYTO-
SKELETON
Microtubules

Mitochondrion
Peroxisome
Chloroplast
Plasma
membrane

Cell wall
Plasmodesmata
Wall of adjacent cell
Concept 6.3: The eukaryotic cell’s genetic
instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried
out by the ribosomes

• The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a

eukaryotic cell
• Ribosomes use the information from the DNA
to make proteins

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The Nucleus: Information Central

• The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes

and is usually the most conspicuous organelle
• The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus,
separating it from the cytoplasm
• The nuclear membrane is a double membrane;
each membrane consists of a lipid bilayer

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Fig. 6-10

Nucleus
1 µm Nucleolus
Chromatin
Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
Outer membrane

Nuclear pore

Pore
complex

Rough ER
Surface of
nuclear envelope
Ribosome 1 µm

0.25 µm

Close-up of nuclear
envelope

Pore complexes (TEM) Nuclear lamina (TEM)

• Pores regulate the entry and exit of molecules
from the nucleus
• The shape of the nucleus is maintained by the
nuclear lamina, which is composed of protein

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• In the nucleus, DNA and proteins form genetic
material called chromatin
• Chromatin condenses to form discrete
chromosomes
• The nucleolus is located within the nucleus
and is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
synthesis

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Ribosomes: Protein Factories

• Ribosomes are particles made of ribosomal

RNA and protein
• Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two
locations:
– In the cytosol (free ribosomes)

– On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or

the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)

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Fig. 6-11

Cytosol
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Free ribosomes

Bound ribosomes

Large
subunit

Small
0.5 µm subunit
TEM showing ER and ribosomes Diagram of a ribosome
Concept 6.4: The endomembrane system regulates
protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in
the cell
• Components of the endomembrane system:
– Nuclear envelope
– Endoplasmic reticulum
– Golgi apparatus
– Lysosomes
– Vacuoles
– Plasma membrane
• These components are either continuous or
connected via transfer by vesicles
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The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory

• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for

more than half of the total membrane in many
eukaryotic cells
• The ER membrane is continuous with the
nuclear envelope
• There are two distinct regions of ER:
– Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes

– Rough ER, with ribosomes studding its

surface
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Fig. 6-12
Smooth ER

Rough ER Nuclear
envelope

ER lumen
Cisternae
Ribosomes Transitional ER
Transport vesicle 200 nm
Smooth ER Rough ER
Functions of Smooth ER

• The smooth ER
– Synthesizes lipids

– Metabolizes carbohydrates

– Detoxifies poison

– Stores calcium

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Functions of Rough ER

• The rough ER
– Has bound ribosomes, which secrete
glycoproteins (proteins covalently bonded to
carbohydrates)
– Distributes transport vesicles, proteins
surrounded by membranes
– Is a membrane factory for the cell

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The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and
Receiving Center
• The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened
membranous sacs called cisternae
• Functions of the Golgi apparatus:
– Modifies products of the ER

– Manufactures certain macromolecules

– Sorts and packages materials into transport

vesicles

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Fig. 6-13

cis face
(“receiving” side of 0.1 µm
Golgi apparatus) Cisternae

trans face
(“shipping” side of TEM of Golgi apparatus
Golgi apparatus)
Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments

• A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic

enzymes that can digest macromolecules
• Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins,
fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids

Animation: Lysosome Formation

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• Some types of cell can engulf another cell by
phagocytosis; this forms a food vacuole
• A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and
digests the molecules
• Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the
cell’s own organelles and macromolecules, a
process called autophagy

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Fig. 6-14

Nucleus 1 µm Vesicle containing 1 µm

two damaged organelles

Mitochondrion
fragment

Peroxisome
fragment
Lysosome
Digestive
enzymes
Lysosome Lysosome

Plasma Peroxisome
membrane
Digestion

Food vacuole Digestion

Mitochondrion
Vesicle

(a) Phagocytosis (b) Autophagy

Fig. 6-14a
Nucleus 1 µm

Lysosome
Digestive
enzymes
Lysosome

Plasma
membrane
Digestion

Food vacuole

(a) Phagocytosis
Fig. 6-14b
Vesicle containing 1 µm
two damaged organelles

Mitochondrion
fragment

Peroxisome
fragment

Lysosome

Peroxisome

Mitochondrion Digestion
Vesicle

(b) Autophagy
Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments

• A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or

several vacuoles

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• Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis

• Contractile vacuoles, found in many

freshwater protists, pump excess water out of
cells
• Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant
cells, hold organic compounds and water

Video: Paramecium Vacuole

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Fig. 6-15

Central vacuole

Cytosol

Nucleus Central
vacuole

Cell wall

Chloroplast

5 µm
The Endomembrane System: A Review

• The endomembrane system is a complex and

dynamic player in the cell’s compartmental
organization

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 6-16-1

Nucleus

Rough ER

Smooth ER

Plasma
membrane
Fig. 6-16-2

Nucleus

Rough ER

Smooth ER
cis Golgi

Plasma
trans Golgi membrane
Fig. 6-16-3

Nucleus

Rough ER

Smooth ER
cis Golgi

Plasma
trans Golgi membrane
Concept 6.5: Mitochondria and chloroplasts
change energy from one form to another
• Mitochondria are the sites of cellular
respiration, a metabolic process that generates
ATP
• Chloroplasts, found in plants and algae, are
the sites of photosynthesis
• Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles

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• Mitochondria and chloroplasts
– Are not part of the endomembrane system

– Have a double membrane

– Have proteins made by free ribosomes

– Contain their own DNA

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Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion

• Mitochondria are in nearly all eukaryotic cells

• They have a smooth outer membrane and an
inner membrane folded into cristae
• The inner membrane creates two
compartments: intermembrane space and
mitochondrial matrix
• Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration
are catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix
• Cristae present a large surface area for
enzymes that synthesize ATP
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Fig. 6-17

Intermembrane space
Outer
membrane

Free
ribosomes
in the
mitochondrial
matrix Inner
membrane
Cristae
Matrix

0.1 µm
Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy

• The chloroplast is a member of a family of

organelles called plastids
• Chloroplasts contain the green pigment
chlorophyll, as well as enzymes and other
molecules that function in photosynthesis
• Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other
green organs of plants and in algae

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• Chloroplast structure includes:
– Thylakoids, membranous sacs, stacked to
form a granum
– Stroma, the internal fluid

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Fig. 6-18

Ribosomes
Stroma
Inner and outer
membranes

Granum

1 µm
Thylakoid
Peroxisomes: Oxidation

• Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic

compartments bounded by a single membrane
• Peroxisomes produce hydrogen peroxide and
convert it to water
• Oxygen is used to break down different types
of molecules

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Fig. 6-19

Chloroplast
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion

1 µm
Concept 6.6: The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers
that organizes structures and activities in the cell
• The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers
extending throughout the cytoplasm
• It organizes the cell’s structures and activities,
anchoring many organelles
• It is composed of three types of molecular
structures:
– Microtubules
– Microfilaments
– Intermediate filaments

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Fig. 6-20

Microtubule

Microfilaments
0.25 µm
Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support, Motility, and
Regulation
• The cytoskeleton helps to support the cell and
maintain its shape
• It interacts with motor proteins to produce
motility
• Inside the cell, vesicles can travel along
“monorails” provided by the cytoskeleton
• Recent evidence suggests that the
cytoskeleton may help regulate biochemical
activities
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Fig. 6-21

Vesicle
ATP
Receptor for
motor protein

Motor protein Microtubule

(ATP powered) of cytoskeleton
(a)

Microtubule Vesicles 0.25 µm

(b)
Components of the Cytoskeleton

• Three main types of fibers make up the

cytoskeleton:
– Microtubules are the thickest of the three
components of the cytoskeleton
– Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are
the thinnest components
– Intermediate filaments are fibers with
diameters in a middle range

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Table 6-1

10 µm 10 µm 10 µm

Column of tubulin dimers

Keratin proteins
Actin subunit Fibrous subunit (keratins
25 nm coiled together)

7 nm 8–12 nm

  Tubulin dimer
Table 6-1a
10 µm

Column of tubulin
dimers

25 nm

  Tubulin
dimer
Table 6-1b
10 µm

Actin subunit

7 nm
Table 6-1c
5 µm

Keratin proteins
Fibrous subunit (keratins
coiled together)

8–12 nm
Microtubules

• Microtubules are hollow rods about 25 nm in

diameter and about 200 nm to 25 microns long
• Functions of microtubules:
– Shaping the cell

– Guiding movement of organelles

– Separating chromosomes during cell division

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Centrosomes and Centrioles
• In many cells, microtubules grow out from a
centrosome near the nucleus
• The centrosome is a “microtubule-organizing
center”
• In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of
centrioles, each with nine triplets of
microtubules arranged in a ring

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Fig. 6-22
Centrosome

Microtubule

Centrioles
0.25 µm

Longitudinal section Microtubules Cross section

of one centriole of the other centriole
Cilia and Flagella
• Microtubules control the beating of cilia and
flagella, locomotor appendages of some cells
• Cilia and flagella differ in their beating patterns

Video: Chlamydomonas Video: Paramecium Cilia

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Fig. 6-23
Direction of swimming

(a) Motion of flagella

5 µm

Direction of organism’s movement

Power stroke Recovery stroke

(b) Motion of cilia

15 µm
• Cilia and flagella share a common
ultrastructure:
– A core of microtubules sheathed by the plasma
membrane
– A basal body that anchors the cilium or
flagellum
– A motor protein called dynein, which drives
the bending movements of a cilium or
flagellum
Animation: Cilia and Flagella

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Fig. 6-24
Outer microtubule
0.1 µm Plasma
doublet
membrane
Dynein proteins
Central
microtubule
Radial
spoke
Protein cross-
Microtubules linking outer
doublets
(b) Cross section of
Plasma cilium
membrane
Basal body

0.5 µm
(a) Longitudinal 0.1 µm
section of cilium Triplet

(c) Cross section of basal body

• How dynein “walking” moves flagella and cilia:
− Dynein arms alternately grab, move, and
release the outer microtubules
– Protein cross-links limit sliding

– Forces exerted by dynein arms cause doublets

to curve, bending the cilium or flagellum

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Fig. 6-25
Microtubule
doublets ATP

Dynein
protein
(a) Effect of unrestrained dynein movement

ATP
Cross-linking
proteins
inside outer doublets

Anchorage
in cell

(b) Effect of cross-linking proteins

1 3

(c) Wavelike motion

Fig. 6-25a

Microtubule
doublets ATP

Dynein
protein
(a) Effect of unrestrained dynein movement
Fig. 6-25b

ATP
Cross-linking proteins
inside outer doublets

Anchorage
in cell

(b) Effect of cross-linking proteins

1 3
2

(c) Wavelike motion

Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)

• Microfilaments are solid rods about 7 nm in

diameter, built as a twisted double chain of
actin subunits
• The structural role of microfilaments is to bear
tension, resisting pulling forces within the cell
• They form a 3-D network called the cortex just
inside the plasma membrane to help support
the cell’s shape
• Bundles of microfilaments make up the core of
microvilli of intestinal cells
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Fig. 6-26

Microvillus

Plasma membrane

Microfilaments (actin
filaments)

Intermediate filaments

0.25 µm
• Microfilaments that function in cellular motility
contain the protein myosin in addition to actin
• In muscle cells, thousands of actin filaments
are arranged parallel to one another
• Thicker filaments composed of myosin
interdigitate with the thinner actin fibers

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Fig. 6-27

Muscle cell

Actin filament

Myosin filament
Myosin arm

(a) Myosin motors in muscle cell contraction

Cortex (outer cytoplasm):

gel with actin network

Inner cytoplasm: sol

with actin subunits

Extending
pseudopodium

(b) Amoeboid movement

Nonmoving cortical
cytoplasm (gel)
Chloroplast

Streaming
cytoplasm
(sol) Vacuole

Parallel actin
filaments Cell wall

(c) Cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells

Fig, 6-27a

Muscle cell

Actin filament

Myosin filament
Myosin arm

(a) Myosin motors in muscle cell contraction

Fig. 6-27bc
Cortex (outer cytoplasm):
gel with actin network

Inner cytoplasm: sol

with actin subunits
Extending
pseudopodium

(b) Amoeboid movement

Nonmoving cortical
cytoplasm (gel)
Chloroplast

Streaming
cytoplasm
(sol)
Vacuole

Parallel actin
filaments
Cell wall

(c) Cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells

• Localized contraction brought about by actin
and myosin also drives amoeboid movement
• Pseudopodia (cellular extensions) extend and
contract through the reversible assembly and
contraction of actin subunits into microfilaments

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• Cytoplasmic streaming is a circular flow of
cytoplasm within cells
• This streaming speeds distribution of materials
within the cell
• In plant cells, actin-myosin interactions and sol-
gel transformations drive cytoplasmic
streaming

Video: Cytoplasmic Streaming

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Intermediate Filaments

• Intermediate filaments range in diameter from

8–12 nanometers, larger than microfilaments
but smaller than microtubules
• They support cell shape and fix organelles in
place
• Intermediate filaments are more permanent
cytoskeleton fixtures than the other two classes

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Concept 6.7: Extracellular components and
connections between cells help coordinate cellular
activities

• Most cells synthesize and secrete materials

that are external to the plasma membrane
• These extracellular structures include:
– Cell walls of plants

– The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells

– Intercellular junctions

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Cell Walls of Plants

• The cell wall is an extracellular structure that

distinguishes plant cells from animal cells
• Prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists also have
cell walls
• The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its
shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water
• Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers
embedded in other polysaccharides and protein

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• Plant cell walls may have multiple layers:
– Primary cell wall: relatively thin and flexible
– Middle lamella: thin layer between primary
walls of adjacent cells
– Secondary cell wall (in some cells): added
between the plasma membrane and the
primary cell wall

• Plasmodesmata are channels between

adjacent plant cells

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Fig. 6-28

Secondary
cell wall
Primary
cell wall

Middle
lamella

1 µm
Central vacuole
Cytosol
Plasma membrane

Plant cell walls

Plasmodesmata
Fig. 6-29

RESULTS

10 µm

Distribution of cellulose Distribution of microtubules

synthase over time over time
The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells

• Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by

an elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM)
• The ECM is made up of glycoproteins such as
collagen, proteoglycans, and fibronectin
• ECM proteins bind to receptor proteins in the
plasma membrane called integrins

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Fig. 6-30

Collagen Proteoglycan Polysaccharide

EXTRACELLULAR FLUID complex molecule

Carbo-
hydrates

Fibronectin Core
protein

Integrins

Proteoglycan
molecule
Plasma
membrane
Proteoglycan complex

Micro- CYTOPLASM
filaments
Fig. 6-30a

Collagen Proteoglycan
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID complex

Fibronectin

Integrins

Plasma
membrane

Micro- CYTOPLASM
filaments
Fig. 6-30b
Polysaccharide
molecule

Carbo-
hydrates

Core
protein

Proteoglycan
molecule

Proteoglycan complex
• Functions of the ECM:
– Support
– Adhesion
– Movement
– Regulation

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Intercellular Junctions

• Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ

systems often adhere, interact, and
communicate through direct physical contact
• Intercellular junctions facilitate this contact

• There are several types of intercellular junctions

– Plasmodesmata
– Tight junctions
– Desmosomes
– Gap junctions
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Plasmodesmata in Plant Cells

• Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate

plant cell walls
• Through plasmodesmata, water and small
solutes (and sometimes proteins and RNA) can
pass from cell to cell

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 6-31

Cell walls

Interior
of cell

Interior
of cell
0.5 µm Plasmodesmata Plasma membranes
Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, and Gap Junctions in
Animal Cells
• At tight junctions, membranes of neighboring
cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of
extracellular fluid
• Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten cells
together into strong sheets
• Gap junctions (communicating junctions) provide
cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells
Animation: Tight Junctions

Animation: Desmosomes

Animation: Gap Junctions

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 6-32

Tight
Tight junctions prevent junction
fluid from moving
across a layer of cells

0.5 µm

Tight junction

Intermediate
filaments

Desmosome

Gap Desmosome
1 µm
junctions

Extracellular
Space matrix
between Gap junction
cells
Plasma membranes
of adjacent cells
0.1 µm
Fig. 6-32a
Tight junctions prevent
fluid from moving
across a layer of cells

Tight junction

Intermediate
filaments
Desmosome

Gap
junctions

Extracellular
Space matrix
between
cells
Plasma membranes
of adjacent cells
Fig. 6-32b

Tight junction

0.5 µm
Fig. 6-32c

Desmosome
1 µm
Fig. 6-32d

Gap junction

0.1 µm
The Cell: A Living Unit Greater Than the Sum of
Its Parts
• Cells rely on the integration of structures and
organelles in order to function
• For example, a macrophage’s ability to destroy
bacteria involves the whole cell, coordinating
components such as the cytoskeleton,
lysosomes, and plasma membrane

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 6-33

5 µm
Fig. 6-UN1
Cell Component Structure Function

Concept 6.3 Nucleus Surrounded by nuclear Houses chromosomes, made of

The eukaryotic cell’s genetic envelope (double membrane) chromatin (DNA, the genetic
instructions are housed in perforated by nuclear pores. material, and proteins); contains
the nucleus and carried out The nuclear envelope is nucleoli, where ribosomal
by the ribosomes continuous with the subunits are made. Pores
endoplasmic reticulum (ER). regulate entry and exit of
materials.

(ER)

Ribosome Two subunits made of ribo- Protein synthesis

somal RNA and proteins; can be
free in cytosol or bound to ER

Concept 6.4 Endoplasmic reticulum Extensive network of Smooth ER: synthesis of

The endomembrane system membrane-bound tubules and lipids, metabolism of carbohy-
regulates protein traffic and (Nuclear sacs; membrane separates drates, Ca2+ storage, detoxifica-
performs metabolic functions envelope) lumen from cytosol; tion of drugs and poisons
in the cell continuous with
the nuclear envelope. Rough ER: Aids in synthesis of
secretory and other proteins from
bound ribosomes; adds
carbohydrates to glycoproteins;
produces new membrane

Golgi apparatus Stacks of flattened Modification of proteins, carbo-

membranous hydrates on proteins, and phos-
sacs; has polarity pholipids; synthesis of many
(cis and trans polysaccharides; sorting of Golgi
faces) products, which are then
released in vesicles.

Lysosome Membranous sac of hydrolytic Breakdown of ingested

enzymes (in animal cells) substances,
cell macromolecules, and damaged
organelles for recycling
Vacuole Large membrane-bounded Digestion, storage, waste
vesicle in plants disposal, water balance, cell
growth, and protection

Concept 6.5 Mitochondrion Bounded by double Cellular respiration

Mitochondria and chloro- membrane;
plasts change energy inner membrane has
from infoldings (cristae)
one form to another

Chloroplast Typically two membranes Photosynthesi

around fluid stroma, which s
contains membranous
thylakoids
stacked into grana (in plants)
Peroxisome Specialized metabolic Contains enzymes that transfer
compartment bounded by a hydrogen to water, producing
single membrane hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as a
by-product, which is converted
to water by other enzymes
in the peroxisome
Fig. 6-UN1a

Cell Component Structure Function

Concept 6.3 Nucleus Surrounded by nuclear Houses chromosomes, made of

The eukaryotic cell’s genetic envelope (double membrane) chromatin (DNA, the genetic
instructions are housed in perforated by nuclear pores. material, and proteins); contains
the nucleus and carried out The nuclear envelope is nucleoli, where ribosomal
by the ribosomes continuous with the subunits are made. Pores
endoplasmic reticulum (ER). regulate entry and exit os
materials.

(ER)

Ribosome Two subunits made of ribo- Protein synthesis

somal RNA and proteins; can be
free in cytosol or bound to ER
Fig. 6-UN1b

Cell Component Structure Function

Concept 6.4 Endoplasmic reticulum Extensive network of Smooth ER: synthesis of

The endomembrane system membrane-bound tubules and lipids, metabolism of carbohy-
(Nuclear sacs; membrane separates drates, Ca2+ storage, detoxifica-
regulates protein traffic and envelope)
performs metabolic lumen from cytosol; tion of drugs and poisons
functions continuous with
in the cell the nuclear envelope. Rough ER: Aids in sythesis of
secretory and other proteins
from bound ribosomes; adds
carbohydrates to glycoproteins;
produces new membrane

Golgi apparatus Stacks of flattened Modification of proteins, carbo-

membranous hydrates on proteins, and phos-
sacs; has polarity pholipids; synthesis of many
(cis and trans polysaccharides; sorting of
faces) Golgi products, which are then
released in vesicles.

Breakdown of ingested sub-

Lysosome Membranous sac of stances cell macromolecules,
hydrolytic and damaged organelles for
enzymes (in animal cells) recycling
Vacuole Large membrane-bounded Digestion, storage, waste
vesicle in plants disposal, water balance, cell
growth, and protection
Fig. 6-UN1c

Cell Component Structure Function

Concept 6.5 Mitochondrion Bounded by double Cellular respiration

Mitochondria and chloro- membrane;
plasts change energy from inner membrane has
one form to another infoldings (cristae)

Chloroplast Typically two membranes Photosynthesis

around fluid stroma, which
contains membranous thylakoids
stacked into grana (in plants)

Peroxisome Specialized metabolic Contains enzymes that transfer

compartment bounded by a hydrogen to water, producing
single membrane hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as a
by-product, which is converted
to water by other enzymes
in the peroxisome
Fig. 6-UN2
Fig. 6-UN3
You should now be able to:

1. Distinguish between the following pairs of

terms: magnification and resolution;
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell; free and
bound ribosomes; smooth and rough ER

2. Describe the structure and function of the

components of the endomembrane system

3. Briefly explain the role of mitochondria,

chloroplasts, and peroxisomes

4. Describe the functions of the cytoskeleton

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
5. Compare the structure and functions of
microtubules, microfilaments, and
intermediate filaments

6. Explain how the ultrastructure of cilia and

flagella relate to their functions

7. Describe the structure of a plant cell wall

8. Describe the structure and roles of the

extracellular matrix in animal cells

9. Describe four different intercellular junctions

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings