ADVANCED

COMPUTER NETWORKS
Grading

Grading Policy
• Quizzes
• Assignments
• Mid term Exam
• Final Exam
Introduction to Computer Networks

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
NETWORKS
Introduction to Computer Networks

Computer Networks
•A computer network is a
set of computers connected
together for the purpose of
sharing resources.
•The most common resource
shared today is connection
to the Internet.
•Other shared resources can
include a printer or a file
server
Introduction to Computer Networks

Computer Network (Contd.)

• Computers on a network are called
nodes.
• The connection between computers can
be done via cabling,
– most commonly the Ethernet cable,
– wirelessly through radio waves.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Data Transfer Rate

• Data transfer rate
– The speed with which data is moved from
one place on a network to another
– Data transfer rate is a key issue in computer
networks
Introduction to Computer Networks

LAN, MAN & WAN

• Network in small geographical Area
(Room, Building or a Campus) is called
LAN (Local Area Network)

• Network in a City is call MAN

(Metropolitan Area Network)

• Network spread geographically (Country

or across Globe) is called WAN (Wide
Area Network)
Introduction to Computer Networks

Internet Connections
• Internet backbone
– A set of high-speed networks that carry
Internet traffic
– These networks are provided by companies
such as AT&T, GTE, and IBM

• Internet service provider (ISP)

– A company that provides other companies
or individuals with access to the Internet
Introduction to Computer Networks

Internet Connections
• There are various technologies available
that you can use to connect a home
computer to the Internet
– A phone modem converts computer data into
an analog audio signal for transfer over a
telephone line, and then a modem at the
destination converts it back again into data.
– A digital subscriber line (DSL) uses regular
copper phone lines to transfer digital data to
and from the phone company’s central office
– A cable modem uses the same line that your
cable TV signals come in on to transfer the
data back and forth
Introduction to Computer Networks

Internet Connections
• Broadband A connection in which transfer
speeds are faster than 128 bits per
second
– DSL connections and cable modems are
broadband connections
– The speed for downloads (getting data from
the Internet to your home computer) may not
be the same as uploads (sending data from
your home computer to the Internet)
Introduction to Computer Networks

Applications of Networks
• Resource Sharing
– Hardware (computing resources, disks, printers)
– Software (application software)
• Information Sharing
– Easy accessibility from anywhere (files, databases)
– Search Capability (WWW)
• Communication
– Email
– Message broadcast
• Remote computing
• Distributed processing (GRID Computing)
Introduction to Computer Networks

Network Topology
• The network topology
defines the way in which
computers, printers, and
other devices are
connected. A network
topology describes the
layout of the wire and
devices as well as the
paths used by data
transmissions.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Bus Topology
• Commonly referred to as
a linear bus, all the
devices on a bus
topology are connected
by one single cable.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Star & Tree Topology

• The star topology is the most
commonly used architecture in
Ethernet LANs.
• When installed, the star topology
resembles spokes in a bicycle
wheel.
• Larger networks use the
extended star topology also
called tree topology., this
topology significantly reduces the
traffic on the wires by sending
packets only to the wires of the
destination host.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Ring Topology
• A frame travels around the ring,
stopping at each node. If a node
wants to transmit data, it adds the
data as well as the destination
address to the frame.
• The frame then continues around
the ring until it finds the destination
node, which takes the data out of the
frame.
– Single ring – All the devices on
the network share a single cable
– Dual ring – The dual ring
topology allows data to be sent in
both directions.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Mesh Topology
• The mesh topology
connects all devices
(nodes) to each other for
redundancy and fault
tolerance.
• Used by banks and
financial institutions.
• Implementing the mesh
topology is expensive
and difficult.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Network Components
• Physical Media
• Interconnecting Devices
• Computers
• Networking Software
• Applications
Introduction to Computer Networks

Networking Media
• Networking media can be
defined simply as the
means by which signals
(data) are sent from one
computer to another
(either by cable or
wireless means).
Introduction to Computer Networks

Networking Devices
• HUB, Switches, Routers,
Wireless Access Points,
Modems etc.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Computers: Clients and Servers

• In a client/server network
arrangement, network
services are located in a
dedicated computer
whose only function is to
respond to the requests
of clients.

• The server contains the

file, print, application,
security, and other
services in a central
computer that is
continuously available to
respond to client
requests.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Networking Protocol
• A network protocol defines rules and
conventions for communication between
network devices. 
• Network protocols include mechanisms
for devices to identify and make
connections with each other, as well as
formatting rules that specify how data
sent and received messages.
• Some protocols also support message ​
acknowledgment and data compression
designed for reliable and/or high-
performance network communication.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Networking Protocol
• Network communication protocols: Basic
data communication protocols, such as
TCP/IP and HTTP.
• Network security protocols: Implement
security over network communications
and include HTTPS, SSL and SFTP.
• Network management protocols: Provide
network governance and maintenance
and include SNMP and ICMP.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Addressing and Routing

• Address: byte-string that identifies a node
– Usually unique
• Routing: forwarding decisions
– Process of determining how to forward
messages to the destination node
based on its address
• Types of addresses
– unicast: node-specific
– broadcast: all nodes on a network
– multicast: some subset of nodes on a network
Introduction to Computer Networks

Addressing and Routing

• A network can be constructed from nesting
of networks
• An address is required for each node that
is reachable on the network
• Address is used to route messages toward
appropriate destination
 What is a Protocol?
• Allows entities (i.e. application programs)
from different systems to communicate
• Shared conventions for communicating
information are called protocols
• Includes syntax, semantics, and timing
– Syntax
• Concerns the format of the data blocks
– Semantics
• Includes control information for coordination and error handling
– Timing
• Includes speed matching and sequencing
Why Use Protocol Architecture?
• Data communications requires complex
procedures
– Sender identifies data path/receiver
– Systems negotiate preparedness
– Applications negotiate preparedness
– Translation of file formats
• For all tasks to occur, high level of
cooperation is required
Use of Standard Protocols
 Example #1
Assume Maria and Ann are neighbors with a lot of
common ideas. However, Maria speaks only Spanish,
and Ann speaks only English. Since both have learned
the sign language in their childhood, they enjoy
meeting in a cafe a couple of days per week and
exchange their ideas using signs. Occasionally, they
also use a bilingual dictionary. Communication is face to
face and Happens in one layer as shown in Figure
Example
 Example #2
Now assume that Ann has to move to another town
because of her job. Before she moves, the two meet for
the last time in the same cafe. Although both are sad,
Maria surprises Ann when she opens a packet that
contains two small machines. The first machine can
scan and transform a letter in English to a secret code
or vice versa. The other machine can scan and translate
a letter in Spanish to the same secret code or vice
versa. Ann takes the first machine; Maria keeps the
second one. The two friends can still communicate
using the secret code, as shown in Figure
Example 2
 OSI Reference Model
• The Open Systems Intercommunication
(OSI) Model is a conceptual model to
standardize communications between
computers
• OSI Reference Model - internationally
standardised network architecture.
• OSI = Open Systems Interconnection:
deals with open systems, i.e. systems open
for communications with other systems.
• Model has 7 layers.
 7-Layer OSI Model
Layer 7 Application Layer • Layers 1-4 relate to
Layer 6 Presentation Layer communications
technology.
Layer 5 Session Layer
• Layers 5-7 relate to user
Layer 4 Transport Layer applications.
Layer 3 Network Layer

Layer 2 Data Link Layer

Layer 1 Physical Layer

Communications subnet boundary

 OSI layers

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 34

 An exchange using the OSI model

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 35

 Layer 7: Application Layer
• Level at which applications access
network services.
– Represents services that directly
support software applications for file
transfers, database access, and
electronic mail etc.
 Layer 6: Presentation Layer
• Related to representation of
transmitted data
– Translates different data representations
from the Application layer into uniform
standard format
• Providing services for secure efficient
data transmission
– e.g. data encryption, and data
compression.
 Layer 5: Session Layer
• Allows two applications on different
computers to establish, use, and end a
session.
– e.g. file transfer, remote login
• Establishes dialog control
– Regulates which side transmits, plus when and
how long it transmits.
• Performs token management and
synchronization.
 Layer 4: Transport Layer
• Manages transmission packets
– Repackages long messages when
necessary into small packets for
transmission
– Reassembles packets in correct order to
get the original message.
• Handles error recognition and
recovery.
– Transport layer at receiving
acknowledges packet delivery.
– Resends missing packets
 Layer 3: Network Layer
• Manages addressing/routing of data within the
subnet
– Addresses messages and translates logical addresses
and names into physical addresses.
– Determines the route from the source to the
destination computer
– Manages traffic problems, such as switching, routing,
and controlling the congestion of data packets.
• Routing can be:
– Based on static tables
– determined at start of each session
– Individually determined for each packet, reflecting the current
network load.
 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
 Packages raw bits from the Physical
layer into frames (logical, structured
packets for data).
 Provides reliable transmission of
frames
 It waits for an acknowledgment from the
receiving computer.
 Retransmits frames for which
acknowledgement not received
 Layer 1: Physical Layer
• Transmits bits from one computer to another
• Regulates the transmission of a stream of
bits over a physical medium.
• Defines how the cable is attached to the
network adapter and what transmission
technique is used to send data over the
cable. Deals with issues like
– The definition of 0 and 1, e.g. how many volts
represents a 1, and how long a bit lasts?
– Whether the channel is simplex or duplex?
– How many pins a connector has, and what the function
of each pin is?
 Services in the OSI Model
• In OSI model, each layer provide services
to layer above, and ‘consumes’ services
provided by layer below.
• Active elements in a layer called entities.
• Entities in same layer in different machines
called peer entities.
 Connections
• Layers can offer connection-oriented or
connectionless services.
• Connection-oriented like telephone system.
• Connectionless like postal system.
• Each service has an associated Quality-of-
service (e.g. reliable or unreliable).
 Reliability
• Reliable services never lose/corrupt data.
• Reliable service costs more.
• Typical application for reliable service is file
transfer.
• Typical application not needing reliable
service is voice traffic.
• Not all applications need connections.
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior

to the OSI model. Therefore, the layers in the
TCP/IP protocol suite do not match exactly
with those in the OSI model. The original
TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four
software layers built upon the hardware.
Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-
layer model with the layers named similarly to
the ones in the OSI model.
Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
TCP/IP and OSI model
 OSI vs TCP/IP
• TCP/IP and OSI are the two most widely used
networking models for communication.
• There are some similarities and dissimilarities between
them.
• Major difference is that OSI is a conceptual model which
is not practically used for communication, whereas,
– TCP/IP is used for establishing a connection and
communicating through the network.
 OSI vs TCP/IP
• It is a theoretical model • It is a client server model used for
which is used for transmission of data over the
computing system internet.
• TCP/IP does not have a separate
• OSI model has a separate Presentation layer or Session
Presentation layer and layer
Session layer • TCP/IP model is, in a way
• OSI is a reference model implementation of the OSI model.
• Horizontal approach
around which the networks
are built. Generally it is
used as a guidance tool.
• Vertical Approach
 TCP/IP Applications
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
– Basic e-mail facility, transferring messages among
hosts
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
– Sends files from one system to another on user
command
• Telnet
– Remote login capability, allowing a user to emulate a
terminal on the remote system
 Internetworking
• Interconnected networks, usually implies
TCP/IP
• Can appear to users as a single large
network
• The global Internet is the largest example,
but intranets and extranets are also
examples
 Characteristics of
Communication Model
• Encapsulation
• Segmentation and reassembly
• Connection control
• Ordered delivery
• Flow control
• Error control
• Addressing
• Multiplexing
• Transmission services
 Encapsulation

• Addition of control information to data

– Address information
– Error-detecting code
– Protocol control
 Segmentation (Fragmentation)

• Data blocks are of bounded size

• Application layer messages may be large
• Network packets may be smaller
• Splitting larger blocks into smaller ones is
segmentation (or fragmentation in TCP/IP)
– ATM blocks (cells) are 53 octets long
– Ethernet blocks (frames) are up to 1526 octets long
• Checkpoints and restart/recovery
 Why Fragment?
• Advantages
– More efficient error control
– More equitable access to network facilities
– Shorter delays
– Smaller buffers needed

• Disadvantages
– Overheads
– Increased interrupts at receiver
– More processing time
 Connection Control
• Connection Establishment
• Data transfer
• Connection termination
• May be connection interruption and recovery
• Sequence numbers used for
– Ordered delivery
– Flow control
– Error control
– Congestion control
Connection Oriented Data
Transfer
 Flow Control
• Done by receiving entity
• Limit amount or rate of data
• Stop and wait
• Credit systems
– Sliding window
• Needed at application as well as network
layers
 Error Control
• Guard against loss or damage
• Error detection
– Sender inserts error detecting bits
– Receiver checks these bits
– If OK, acknowledge
– If error, discard packet
• Retransmission
– If no acknowledge in given time, re-transmit
• Performed at various levels
 Addresses
Four levels of addresses are used in an
internet employing the TCP/IP protocols:
physical address, logical address, port
address, and application-specific address.
Each address is related to a one layer in the
TCP/IP architecture.
Addresses in the TCP/IP protocol suite
 Books
• Text Book
– William Stallings, “ Data & Computer
Communications” 8th Edition, Prentice Hall
• Reference Book
– Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach (5th
Edition) by James F. Kurose and Keith W. Ross
– Computer Networks: A Systems Approach
(4th Edition) by Larry L. Peterson and Bruce
S. Davie