CHAPTER 7

Fluid flow in Pipes

 Laminar Flow – it is said to be laminar flow when
the path of individual fluid particles do not cross
or intersect. The flow is always laminar when
the Reynolds number Re is less than 2000.

 Turbulent Flow – it is said to be turbulent flow

when the path of individual fluid particles are
irregular and continuously cross each other.
Turbulent flow normally occurs when the
Reynolds number Re exceeds 2000.

 Critical Velocity – is the pipes velocity below

which all turbulence are damped out by the
viscosity of the fluid. This is represented by a
Reynolds number Re of 2000.
REYNOLDS NUMBER
 Reynolds number, which is dimensionless, is
the ratio of the inertia force to viscous force.

 For Pipes flowing full:

Eq. 7-1

Eq. 7-2
  Where:

ᶹ = mean velocity
D = pipe diameter in meter
v = kinematic viscosity of the fluid in m²/s
= absolute or dynamic viscosity in Pa-s

 For non-circular pipes, use D = 4R, then the

formula becomes;

Eq. 7-3

Eq. 7-4
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN PIPES
 Laminar Flow – the velocity distribution for
laminar flow, at a cross section follows a
parabolic law of variation with zero velocity
at the walls. In circular pipes, the velocity
varies as the ordinates of a paraboloid of
revolution with its average velocity equal to
one-half of its maximum velocity.
 The equation for the velocity profile for
laminar flow is given by:

Eq. 7-5

Eq. 7-6
 The velocity at any distance r from the center
of the pipe may also be computed using the
squared property of parabola
 Eq. 7-7


  hL = head lost in the pipe  ɥ = absolute viscosity of the liquid

 L = pipe length  = unit weight of the fluid

 ro = pipe radius  u = velocity at distance r from pipe

center
 vc = centerline or maximum
velocity
 v = average velocity
 Turbulent Flow – the velocity distribution for
turbulent flows varies with Reynolds number,
with zero velocity at the wall and increases
more rapidly for a short distance from the
walls as compared to laminar flow.
 The velocity, u, at any point r in a pipe of
radius ro and center velocity vc is:

Eq. 7-8

Eq. 7-9

Eq. 7-10
 The centerline or maximum velocity is given
by:

Eq. 7-11

 Combining eq. 9 and eq. 11, and solving for v

gives the following:

Eq. 7-12
 Where:
 to = maximum shearing stress in the pipe
f = friction factor
 v = mean velocity

 SHEARING STRESS IN PIPES

 Consider a mass of fluid of length L and
radius r to move to the right as shown in the
figure. Due to head lost hL the pressure p2
becomes less than p1
 The shearing stress ts, at the surface of the
fluid can become as follows:

Eq. 7-13
 Multiply and divide this equation by unit
weight,

Eq. 7-14
 It is seen from this equation that the
shearing stress at the center of the pipe is
zero and varies linearly with x. The maximum
shearing stress is at the pipe wall (at x = r).

Eq. 7-15

Eq. 7-16

 Shear Velocity or Friction Velocity, vs

Eq. 7-17
HEAD LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW
 It may be classified into two; the Major head
loss, which is caused by pipe friction along
straight sections of pipe of uniform diameter
and uniform roughness, and Minor head loss,
which are caused by changes in velocity or
directions of flow, and are commonly express
in terms of kinetic energy.
MAJOR HEAD LOSS, HF
A. Darcy-Weisbach Formula (pipe-frition
equation)
Eq. 7-18

Where:
ʄ = Friction factor
L = Length of pipe in meter or feet
D = pipe diameter in meter of feet
ѵ = mean or average velocity or flow in m/s or ft/s
 For non-circular pipes, use D = 4R, where R is
the hydraulic radius defined in eq. 7-4

 For circular pipes, the head loss may be

expressed as:

Eq. 7-19

Eq. 7-20

 Where Q is the discharge.

VALUE OF F:
 For Laminar Flow:

Eq. 7-21

Eq. 7-22

Eq. 7-23

 For non-circular pipes, use eq. 7-22 with D =

4R
B. Manning Formula
One of the best-known open-channel
formulas and is commonly used in pipes. The
formula is given by:

Eq. 7-31

Eq. 7-32
 Where:
n = roughness coefficient
 R = hydraulic radius
 S = slope of the energy grade line = h f /l

Eq. 7-33

For non-circular pipes, use D = 4R

 For circular pipes:

Eq. 7-34
C. Hazen Williams Formula
Widely used in waterworks industry. This
formula is applicable only to the flow of water
in pipes larger than 50mm (2 in.) and velocities
less than 3 m/s. This formula is designed for
flow in both pipes and open channels but is
more commonly used in pipes.

English Units:
Eq. 7-35

For circular pipes flowing full, this formula

becomes

Eq. 7-36
 S.I. Units:

Eq. 7-37

 For circular pipes flowing full, this formula

becomes

Eq. 7-38

Eq. 7-39

 Where:
 C1 =Hazen Williams coefficient
 D = Pipe diameter in
 R = Hydraulic radius

MINOR HEAD LOSS
 Are caused by the changes in direction or
velocity of flow. These changes may be due
to sudden contraction, sudden enlargement,
valves, bends, and any other pipe fittings.
These losses can usually be neglected if the
length of the pipeline is greater than 1500
times the pipe’s diameter. However, in short
pipelines, because these losses may exceed
the friction losses, minor losses must be
considered.
A. Sudden Enlargement
The head loss, m, across a sudden enlargement of pipe
diameter is:

Eq. 7-40

Where:
v1 = velocity before enlargement, m/s
v2 = velocity after enlargement, m/s
Another equation for the head loss caused by a sudden
enlargements was determined experimentally by Archer,
and given as:

Eq. 7-41

A special application of eq. 7-40 and eq. 7-41 is the

discharge from a pipe into a reservoir. The water in the
reservoir has no velocity, so a full velocity head is lost.
B. Gradual Enlargement
The head loss, m, across a gradual conical
enlargement of pipe diameter is:

Eq. 7-42

C. Sudden Contraction
The head loss, m, across a sudden contraction
of a pipe is:

Eq. 7-43

 Where:
 kc= the coefficient of a sudden contraction
 v = velocity in smaller pipe
 Bends and Standard Fittings
 The head loss that occurs in pipe fittings, such as
valves and elbows, and bends is given by:

Eq. 7-44
PIPE DISCHARGING FROM A
RESERVOIR
  
The figure shown below shows the conditions
of flow in a pipe of uniform diameter
discharging from a reservoir into an open air.
The velocity head and the pressure head in
the liquid surface of the reservoir are zero. If
there will be no head lost, the velocity head
could have been equal to H, which is the
distance between the water surface in the
tank and the exit end of the pipe and the
velocity of flow could have been , but such is
not the case due to losses.
For pipe with constant diameter, the difference between the
water levels in the piezometer tubes. If the pipe is
horizontal and with uniform size, the difference in pressure
head measures the head lost between the two points.

If the pipe is very large such that the velocity head is very
small, the total head lost HL can be taken as equal to H.
PIPE CONNECTING TWO RESERVOIR
 When one or more pipes connects two
reservoirs as in the figure shown, the total
head lost in all the pipes is equal to the
difference in elevation of the liquid surfaces
of the reservoir.

Eq. 7-45
PIPES CONNECTED IN SERIES
 For pipes of different diameters connected in
series as shown in the figure below, the
discharge in all pipes are all equal and the
total head lost is equal to the sum of the
individual head losses.
 Eq. 7-46

Eq. 7-47
 If the pipe length in any problem is about 500
diameters, the error resulting from
neglecting minor losses will ordinarily not
exceed 5%, and if the pipe length is 1000
diameters or more, the effect of minor losses
can usually be considered negligible.
Neglecting minor losses, the head lost
becomes:
Eq. 7-48

 If, however, it is desired to include minor

losses, a solution may be made first by
neglecting them and then correcting the
results to correct them.
PIPES CONNECTED IN PARALLEL

Eq. 7-49

Eq. 7-50
 In the pipe system shown, pipe 1 draws
water from reservoir A and leads to junction
C which divides the flow to pipes 2 and 3,
which join again in junction D and flows
through pipe 4. The sum of the flow in pipes
2 and 3 equals the flow in pipes 1 and 4.
Since the drop in the energy grade line
between C and D is equal to the difference in
levels of piezometers a and b, then the head
lost in pipe 2 is therefore equal to the head
lost in pipe 3.
The necessary equations for the system are :
Q₁ = Q₄ Eq. (1)
Eq. (2)
Q₁ = Q₂ + Q₃
Eq. (3)
hf₂ = hf₃
HLAB = hf₁ + hf₂ + hf₄ Eq. (4)

Note: The number of equations needed to solve the

problem must be equal to the number of pipes.
EQUIVALENT PIPE
 If a pipe system (O) is to be replaced with an
equivalent single pipe (E), the equivalent
pipe must have the same discharge and
head loss as the original pipe system.

Qe = Qo Eq. 7-51
HLe = HLo Eq. 7-52
RESERVOIR PROBLEMS
 In the figure shown below, the three pipes 1,
2, and 3 connects the three reservoirs A, B,
and C respectively and with all the pipes
meeting at a common junction D.
TYPES OF RESERVOIR PROBLEMS
 Type 1: Given the discharge in one of the
pipes, or given the pressure at the junction P,
and the required is the elevation one of the
reservoirs or the diameter or length of the
one of the pipes, and

 Type 2: Given all the pipe properties and

elevation of all reservoirs, find the flow in
each pipe, which can be solved by trial and
error.
PROCEDURE IN SOLVING RESERVOIR
PROBLEMS:
 Type 1
 With known flow in one pipe leading to or
flowing out from a reservoir of known elevation,
solve for its head lost hf.
 Determine the elevation of the energy grade line
at the junction of the pipes (P) by adding or
subtracting (depending on the direction of flow)
the head lost in the pipe from elevation of the
water surface in the reservoir.
 If the known value is the pressure at P, the
elevation of P’ is the elevation of P + pp/y.
 Draw a line of P’ to the surface of the other
reservoir. These lines represent the EGL’s of each
pipe. The difference in elevation between P’ and
the surface of the reservoir is the head lost in the
pipe.
 Solve for the discharge.
 Type 2: (see problem 7 – 65)
 Given all elevation and pipe properties,
determine the direction of flow in each pipe. Of
course, the highest reservoir always have an
outflow and the lowest always have the inflow,
but the middle reservoir (B) may have an inflow
or outflow.
 To find out the direction of flow in pipe 2, assume
that Q2 = 0 such that P’ is at elevation B, then
the value of hf1 and hf3 can be solved. (In the
figure shown, hf1 = 20 m and hf3 = 30 m). With hf1
and hf3 known, solve for Q1 and Q3. If Q1 > Q3,
then Q2 is towards B and P’ is above the reservoir
B. If Q1 < Q3, then Q2 is away from B and P’ is
below reservoir B.
 After determining the direction of Q2 (say
towards reservoir B), express all the head lost in
terms of the other, say in terms of hf1. Let hf1 = x
 With all head lost hf expressed in terms of x, all flow Q can also be
 


expressed in terms of x (usually in the form )

 Example, if Darcy-Weisbach or Manning Formula is used, hf varies with

Q2

 Simplify the equation and solve for x. We may also used trial-and-error
solution.
 Once the x is determined, substitute its value to
equation (1), (2) and (3) to solve for Q1, Q2, and
Q3, respectively.

Eq. 7-55

Eq. 7-56

Eq. 7-57
SAMPLE
PROBLE
MS
 Example #1 (7-13G). Water flows from a
tank through 160ft of 4in diameter pipe and
then discharges into air shown in the figure.
The flow of water in the pipe is 12cfs.
Assume n = 0.013 and neglect minor losses.
Determine the following:
(a)The velocity of flow in the pipe in fps
(b)The total head lost in the pipe in ft
(c)The pressure at the top of the tank in psi
Solution:
Q = 12ft3/s = 0.3401m3/s
D = 4” = 0.333ft = 101.6mm
n = 0.013
L = 160ft = 48.78m
(a)Velocity of flow in the pipe:
v = Q/A = 12/ (π/4)(0.333)2
v = 137. 785 ft/s
(b)Head lost in the pipe:
HL = 10.29n2LQ2
D16/3
HL = 10.29(0.013)2(48.78)(0.3401)2
(0.1016)16/3
HL = 1942.33m = 6370.86ft
(c)Pressure in the tank:
Ea – HL = Eb
Va2/2g + pa/γ + Za – HL = Vc2/2g + pc/γ + Zc
0 + pa/γ + 10 – 6370.86 = (137.785)2/2(32.2)
+ 0 + 100
pa/γ = 6755.65 feet of water
p = 421,522.8 psf
p = 2,927.45 psi

Using the English units for Manning’s Formula:

v = (1.49/n)R2/3S1/2 ; v = 137.785 ft/s ; R =
D/4 = 0.0833ft ; S = HL/L = HL/160
137.785 = (1.49/0.013)(0.0833)2/3(HL/160)1/2
HL = 6356 ft
 Example #2 (7-26G). Find the approximate
flow rate at which water will flow in a conduit
shaped in the form of an equilateral triangle
if the head lost is 5m per km length. The
cross sectional area of the duct is 0.075m2.
Assume f = 0.0155.

Solution:
hf = (fl/D)(v2/2g)
; hf = 5m
; L = 1000m
D = 4R
R = A/P = A/(3x)
A = ½(x2)sin60 = 0.075
x = 0.416m
R = 0.07m/(3x0.416) = 0.06m
D = 4(0.06) = 0.24m

5 = 0.0155(1000) v2
0.24(2)(9.81)
V = 1.232m/s

[Q = Av]
Q = 0.075(1.232) = 0.0924m3/s
Q = 92.4 lit/sec
 Example #3 (7-48G). A pipe network
consists of pipeline 1 from A to B, then at B it
is connected to pipelines 2 and 3, where it
merges again at Joint C to form a single
pipeline 4 up to point D. Pipelines 1,2 and 4
are in series connection whereas pipelines 2
and 3 are in parallel to each other. If the rate
of flow from A to B is 10lit/sec and assuming f
= 0.02 for all pipes, Determine the flow in
each pipe and the total head lost from A to D.
Solution:

Q1 = Q4 = 10L/s
Q1 = Q4 = 0.01m3/s

[hf = 0.0826fLQ2/D5]
hf1 = 0.0826(.02)(3000)(0.01)2/0.25 = 1.549m
hf2 = 0.0826(.02)(2200)(Q2)2/0.35 = 1495.64Q22
hf3 = 0.0826(.02)(3200)(Q3)2/0.25 =
16520.64Q32
hf4 = 0.0826(.02)(2800)(0.01)2/0.45 = 0.0452m
[hf2 = hf3]
1495.64Q22 = 16520.64Q32
Q2 = 3.323Q3 >>> Eq. 1
[Q2 + Q3 = 0.01]
3.323Q3 + 3.323Q3 = 0.01
Q3 = 0.00231 m3/s = 2.31L/s
Substitute Q3 to Eq. (1):
Q2 = 3.323(0.00231)
Q2 = 0.007687 m3/s
Q2 = 7.687 L/s
[HL = hf1 + hf2 + hf4]
HL = 1.549 + 1495.64(0.007687)2 + 0.0452
HL = 1.683 m
 Example #4 (7-61G). The turbine shown is
located in the 350 mm-diameter line. If the
turbine efficiency is 90%, determine its
output power in kilowatts.
Solution:

Q3 = 0.23m3/s
hf3 = 0.0826(.02)(2440)(0.23)2/0.35 = 87.75 m
Elev. D’ = Elev. C + hf3 = 280 + 87.75
Elev. D’ = 367.75 m
hf2 = Elev. D’ - Elev. B = 367.75 – 330
hf2 = 37.75 m
hf2 = 0.0826(.024)(610)(Q2)2/0.155 = 37.75
Q2 = 0.0487 m3/s
At Junction D:
[Inflow = Outflow]
Q1 = Q2 + Q3
Q1 = 0.0487 + 0.23
Q1 = 0.2787 m3/s
hf1 = 0.0826(.018)(1220)(0.2787)2/0.355 =
26.825 m
hf1 + HE = Elev. A – Elev. D’
26.825 + He = 400 – 367.75
HE = 5.425

Power Input = Q1γHE = 0.2787(9.81)(5.425)

Power Input = 14.83 kilowatts

Power Output = Power Input x Efficiency

Power Output = 14.83(0.90)
Power Output = 13.347 kilowatts
 Example #5 (7-63G). Three reservoirs A, B,
and C are connected respectively with pipes
1, 2, and 3 joining at a common junction P
whose elevation is 366m. Reservoir A is at
elevation 993m and reservoir B is at
elevation 844m. The Properties of each pipe
are as follows: L1=1500m, D1=600mm,
f1=0.02; L2=1000m, D2=450mm, f2=0.025;
L3=900m, D3=500mm, f1=0.018. A pressure
gage at junction P reads 4950kPa. What is
the flow in pipe 3 in m3/s and the elevation of
reservoir C.
SOLUTION:
hf1 = 62.4
0.0826(.02)(1500)(Q1)2/0.65 = 62.4
Q1 = 1.399m3/s
hf2 = 26.6 = 0.0826(.025)(1000)(Q2)2/0.455
Q2 = 0.488 m3/s
Q1 = Q2 + Q3
Q3 = 1.399 – 0.488 = 0.911m3/s

Elevation of Reservoir C:
hf3 = 0.0826(.018)(900)(0.911)2/0.55 = 35.54
Elev. C = 870.6 – 35.54
Elev. C = 835.06m