Measurement And Instrument

Ahmed Mortuza Saleque

Assistant Professor
American International University-
Bangladesh

Spring 2015-16

Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16 Ahmed Mortuza Saleque -1-

Measurement of Resistance
Classification of Resistance
• For measurement purposes, resistances can be divided into three categories.

• Low Resistance:

• All resistances of the order of 1Ω and less.

• In practice such resistances may be met with armatures of DC machine and series windings of

large machines.

• Medium Resistance:

• All resistances of magnitude 1Ω to 0.1 MΩ under this class.

• In practice majority of the electrical apparatus used will have resistances which lie between these

limits.

• High Resistance:

• Resistances of the order greater than 0.1 MΩ

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 Measurement of Resistance
Ammeter and Voltmeter Method for Measuring Medium Resistance

(a) (b)
Fig. Circuits for measurement of resistance

• This is the simplest method of measuring resistance and is suitable only for approximate determinations.

• These are two methods of connection for measurement of resistance as shown is above figure.

• But both suffer from errors. The chief source of inaccuracy in the measurement is the shunting effect of voltmeter

and internal resistance of the ammeter.

• To minimize this error, the voltmeter must have very high series resistance such that the current drawn by the

voltmeter is negligible compared to the current flowing through the unknown resistance. And also the internal

resistance of the ammeter must have a very low value.

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Measurement of Resistance
Ammeter and Voltmeter Method for Measuring Medium Resistance (Contd.)

(a)

(b)
Fig. Circuits for measurement of resistance
• The measured value of resistance Rm would be equal to the true value R if the ammeter resistance is zero and
the voltmeter resistance is infinite.
R n = V = VR + Va = IR + IR a = R + Ra
• From the fig. (a) I I I

Here, R = True Value of the Unknown Resistor Rm = Measured Value of the Unknown Resistor

Ra = Internal Resistance of the Ammeter

Ra
• True value of resistance R = R n − R a = R n 1−
Rn
• Thus the measured value of resistance (Rm) will be higher than the true value.
• R n – R Ra
Relative error = =
R R
• The error will be smaller if R >> Ra that is the value of resistance to be measured is higher than the ammeter
resistance.
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 Measurement of Resistance
Ammeter and Voltmeter Method for Measuring Medium Resistance (Contd.)

(a) (b)
Fig. Circuits for measurement of resistance
• From the fig. (b)
V V 1 R
R n= = V = =
IV + IR V I=
V R+
R + RV RR V 1 + RR V
RV
Here, R = True Value of the Unknown Resistor Rm = Measured Value of the Unknown Resistor

RV = Internal Resistance of the Voltmeter

1
• Rn.Rv
True value of resistance R = Rv –Rn = Rn 1– Rn
/R v
• Thus, true value of resistance is equal to the measured value only if the voltmeter resistance is infinite.
• The error will be smaller if R >> Ra that is the value of resistance to be measured is higher than the ammeter
resistance.
• m that R n is very small than the above relation explains that measured value of the
However, if R v>> R so Rv
resistance is smaller than the true value.
• Hence the circuit shown if fig (b) should be used when measuring low resistance values.
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Measurement of Resistance
Wheatstone Bridge

Fig. Circuits for measurement of resistance

• Wheatstone bridge is a very simple circuit used most commonly for measuring medium resistances.
• It has four resistive arms, together with a source of E.M.F (a battery) and a galvanometer.
• In the above fig. ‘R’ is the unknown resistance.
• At null point no current flows through the galvanometer. Hence at balance (or null point),

I1 P = I2 R (i)

And I 1 = I 3 and I 2 = I 4
E
Or, I 1 = I3 = P+Q

and, I 2 = I4 = R+S
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 Measurement of Resistance
Wheatstone Bridge (Contd.)

Fig. Circuits for measurement of resistance

• Substitution I1 and I2 in equation (i) gives,

EP ER
=
P+Q
R+S
Or, PR + PS =
PPR + RQR
Or, Or,=
Q PS S= QR
P
Or, R = S Q
Where S is called the standard arm and P and Q are called ratio arm of the bridge.

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Measurement of Resistance
Wheatstone Bridge (Contd.)
• Errors in Wheatstone Bridge Measurement:
• Resistance of connecting leads
• Thermoelectric effect (can be ignored by reversing battery terminals)
• Temperature effect
• Contact resistance

Kelvin Bridge (For measurement of low resistance):

• Kelvin Bridge is a modified Wheatstone Bridge and provides
high accuracy especially in the measurement of low
resistance.
• Let, Ry is the resistance of connecting lead for R3 and RX. R3 is
the standard resistance (whose value is known) and RX is the
unknown resistance. Fig. Kelvin Bridge

• Let, mark the two points J and K. If the galvanometer is connected to K point then resistance Ry is added to
R3 which results in too low value of RX.
• Now we connect galvanometer to J point it would result in high value of unknown resistance RX.
• Let, connect the galvanometer to point p which is lying in between J and K such that d divides Ry into ratio
m and n.

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 Measurement of Resistance
Kelvin Bridge (For measurement of low resistance) (Contd.) :

• Now from the figure, to obtain balanced condition,

Rnp R1 (i)
= R
2
R np
• Then also the presence of Rmp causes no error, we can write

R 3+ R R1 (ii)
n p = R R X+ R n p
2
• Putting values from equation (i),
R np
3 R +n pR = X R +n p
RR
np
R np = R1 Fig. Kelvin Bridge
R np + R n p
R1 + R2
R1 R2
Rn p = RF As Rmp + Rnp = RY hence, Rn p = RF
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2
• Putting the value of Rmp and Rnp in equation (ii),
R1 R2
R1 R1 R2 ⇒ R = R3
R3 + RF = RX + R ⇒ 3 R = RX X
R1
R1+ R 2 R2 R1+ R 2 F R2
• Thus we can conclude that there is no effect of RY. But Practically it is very difficult to determine the correct point for

the galvanometer connections [i.e. difficult to obtain the condition Rmp/ Rnp = R1/R2), because point P may be
any random point between m and n.
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Measurement of Resistance
Kelvin Double Bridge Method of measuring Low Resistance:
• The arms P, Q and p,q have same ratio.
• The second set of ratio arms p and q is used to connect
galvanometer to a point d at the appropriate potential between m
and n to avoid the effect of connecting lead resistance ‘r’.
• R is the unknown resistance and S is the standard resistance.
• At balance condition no current flows through galvanometer ‘G’.
• Voltage drop between a-b (Eab) is equal to voltage drop Eamd.

P e+ qr
Ea b = ac ac = I R + S +
P+ Q . E and E e+ q+
r e (e + er Fig. Kelvin Double Bridge
And E a n d = E a n + E n d = IR + q) . . I. r = I R
e+ q e+ q+ e+ q+
+
r r
For zero deflection, Eab = Eamd
P er P e+ qr er
⇒ . Ea c = I R + ⇒ .I R + S + = I R+
P+ e+ q+ P+ Q e+ q+ e+ q+
Q r r er r
⇒ R + S e+ q r P+ Q er e = 1 + Q/P R +
= R+ e+ q+ e+ q+
+
+ q + r P r r
er er er er
= R+ + Q/P R + Q/P = R+ + Q/P R + q/e [Because, p/q =P/Q]
e+ q+ e+ q+ e+ q+ e+ q+
r er qr r r r
= R + + Q/P R +
e+ q+ e+ q+
r r
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 Measurement of Resistance
Kelvin Double Bridge Method of measuring Low Resistance (Contd.):

⇒ S e+ qr (e + q)r
e + q + r = e + q + + Q/P R
+
r
⇒ S = Q/P R

⇒ R = P/Q S

The thermoelectric effect may be cancelled by reversing the

battery polarity & average value should be taken.

Fig. Kelvin Double Bridge

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Measurement of Resistance
Measurement of High Resistance:
The measurement of high resistance of the order of hundreds and thousands of mega-ohms is often required
in
electrical equipment. The example of such resistances are:
i. Insulation resistance of components like machines, cables etc.
ii. Leakage resistance of capacitors
iii. Resistance of high circuit elements like vacuum tube circuits.
But there are certain difficulties in measurement of such high resistances. Because of very high resistance, very small
currents flow through the measuring circuits which is very difficult to sense.

Problems regarding measurement of High/Insulation Resistance:

a) Leakage current
• The leakage currents are produced and are of comparable magnitude to the current being measured. Such
currents cause errors. These currents depend on humidity and hence are unpredictable.
b) Due to electrostatic effect stray charges may appear in the circuit causing error
• The stray charges may appear due to electrostatic effect. Such charges and alternating fields can also
cause serious measurement errors.
c) Uneven potential distribution
d) Capacitance effect
e) Temperature rise effect
f) Fairly high voltage are used
• Very high voltage is required in order to raise the current magnitudes. The galvanometer should be very
sensitive and proper steps must be taken to prevent the damage of galvanometer due Ahmed
Measurement And Instrument, Spring 2015-16
to high voltages.
Mortuza Saleque -12-
 Measurement of Resistance
Use of Guard Circuit to Eliminate Error Due to Leakage Current:
• Some form of guard circuits are generally used to eliminate errors due to leakage currents. The following figure
represents the basic principle of guard circuit.

(a) Without Guard (b) With Guard

Fig. Application of Guard Circuit to measure High Resistance

• The high resistance mounted on a piece of insulating material is measured by ammeter-voltmeter method.

• In Fig (a), it can be seen that the micro-ammeter carries the current which is a sum of leakage current IL and the
resistance current IR. Hence the reading obtained by such measurement will not be a true reading due to the error
caused by leakage current.
• For this, a guard terminal is added to the resistance terminal block, as shown in fig. (b).

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Measurement of Resistance
Use of Guard Circuit to Eliminate Error Due to Leakage Current (Contd.):

(a) Without Guard (b)

With Guard
Fig. Application of Guard Circuit to measure High Resistance

• This terminal surrounds the resistance entirely and is connected to the battery side of the micro-ammeter.
• The leakage current IL has now a separate path and it bypasses the micro-ammeter.

• The current through micro-ammeter is IR only and hence the high resistance can be determined correctly.

• The guard and resistance terminal are at the same potential hence no current can flow in between them.

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 Measurement of Resistance
Direct Deflection Method of Measuring High Resistance:
• A typical direct deflection method for measuring the insulation resistance is as shown in the following figure.

Fig. Measurement of Insulation Resistance

• Before testing the cable is immersed in water at least for 24 hours. The temperature of water is maintained
constant.
• The water enters through the pores if any, and soaks through the defects and at the same time, the cable attains
the temperature of water.
• In the earlier phase of the measurement, the galvanometer must be properly shunted. It includes a series
resistance of high value.

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Measurement of Resistance
Direct Deflection Method of Measuring High Resistance (Contd.) :

Fig. Measurement of Insulation Resistance

• The true value of insulation resistance can be determined by subtracting the value of series resistance from the
observed resistance.
• In test on cables, the galvanometer should be short circuit before applying voltage.
• After the application of voltage, short circuit connection across galvanometer is removed.
• Thus galvanometer is protected from sudden initial spike of current which charges cable which then acts as
capacitor.
• The galvanometer used in this method should be very sensitive and should be of high resistance. To prevent
leakage currents, the galvanometer circuit along with the switch and other circuitry must be well insulated.
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 Measurement of Resistance
Loss of Charge Method of Measuring High Resistance:

Fig. Circuit arrangement of Loss of Charge Method

• The resistance to be measured is shunted by a known value capacitor.

• The voltage across parallel combination is measured using electrostatic voltmeter. The circuit is driven by a DC
voltage source of value V.
• The voltage is applied to the circuit through a switch.
• Initially switch is kept open. When the switch is closed at certain instant, the capacitor C starts charging. The
voltage across C is given by
t
VC = v 1 − e– RC

• Then at certain instant say t =t1, switch is open.

• Then capacitor C starts discharging through R. Then at instant voltage is given by,
t 0.4343t
VC = ve–t RC
V
=>t vC = e – RC Simplifying, R = v
= v
C ln
VC 10 V
C
C log

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Measurement of Resistance
Method of Measuring Earth Resistance:
Fall of Potential Method:
• D and E are auxiliary electrodes. A current is passed through
earth electrode E to an other electrode B.
• The position of E and B are fixed and D is moved from closed
to E to closer to B.
• The current density is much greater in the vicinity of the
electrodes than at a distance from them.
• The potential distribution between the electrodes is shown in
figure.
• The voltage changes rapidly at closer positions of D to E and
D to B.
• The resistance of earth therefore,

V
RE = I

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 Measurement of Resistance
Localization of Cable Faults:
• Fault occurring in cables which are in use on lower distribution voltage.
• The common faults are: Ground Fault (core of the cable to ground) and short circuit fault (core of one cable to that of
another cable).
• The methods of localization of these type of cable faults are

i. Murray Loop Test

ii. Varley Loop Test

Murray Loop Test:

• The connection diagram of this method is shown in the
following figure.
• The resistances P, Q R and X forms essentially a
Wheatstone bridge.
• Under balance condition
X Q
P Q X Q
=
R X ⇒ R P= ⇒ =
X+ R P+
Q Q
X = (X +
P+ Q
R)

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Measurement of Resistance
Murray Loop Test (Contd.):
Q
X = (X +
P+ Q
R)
• If l1 represents the length of the fault from the test
end and l is the length of each cable then,
Q
l1 = 2l
P+ Q

• If fault occurs through high resistance, then the fault resistance is added to the battery circuit that reduces the
current flow and sensitivity is reduced.

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 Measurement of Resistance
Varley Loop Test:
• The necessary connection diagram for this test is
shown in figure.
• An SPDT switch K is set at position 1 and balance is
obtained by varying S.

• Let, for first case the value of S is S1. Under balance

condition,
P Q R+ X
=
⇒
PR+ X S1
=
S1 QP
R + X = S1
Q

• The switch K is thrown to position 2 and bridge is rebalanced. Then, the balance condition gives for the
value of S is S2
P Q ⇒ R
R = X + S2 X + S2 = Q
P
R + X + S2 P
⇒ =
+ RQ+X X+ QS 2−Q
⇒ X
= S2 P P +
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Measurement of Resistance
Varley Loop Test (Contd.):
R + X Q − S2 P
X=
P+
Q
• The value of X is obtained from the above equation.
• For the cables of same cross section and resistivity,
the resistances are proportional to the length.
• Now, if X =lr and R + X =2lr then

X l1
=
R+ XX
l1 = 2l
R 2l
+ X

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 Measurement of Resistance
Problem: A short circuit fault is located by Varley Loop test. The ratio of arms are set P=5Ω and
Q=10Ω and the values of variable resistances are 16Ω at position 1 and 7Ω at position 2. The sound
cable and faulty cables are identical and have a resistance of 0.4Ω/km. Determine the length of
each cable and the distance from test end.

Solution:

R+ X P
For position 1,
S1
= Q
P 5
⇒ R + X =1 = 16 = 8Ω
10
S
• So the resistance of eachQcable = 8/2 = 4Ω
• Hence the length of each cable = 4/0.4 = 10 km

R P
For position 2,
X+S
= Q
2

R + X + S2 P+ Q 8+ 7 5 + 10
⇒ = ⇒ = ⇒

X + S2 Q X + 7 10
X = 3Ω
• Distance of fault from testing end = 3/0.4 = 7.5 km
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References:
1. Alan S Morris, “Measurement & Instrumentation Principles”, 3rd Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann.
2. A. K. Sawhney, “ A Course in Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Intrumentation” , 18th edition, Dhanpat
Rai & Co, New Delhi

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