Fundamentals of Flexural Bond

Bond stress based on simple cracked section analysis

dM
dT 
jd
u  o dx  dT
dT
u
 o dx
dM
u
 o jd dx
V
u
 o jd
 Above eq. indicates that the unit bond stress is proportional
to the shear at a particular section. Where
u = Local average bond stress per unit of bar surface area
∑o = Sum of the perimeters of all the bars.
Actual distribution of flexural bond stress
 The actual distribution
of bond stress along
deformed reinforcing bars
is more complex than that
represented by the above
equation
 The above beam is
subject to pure bending
moment, while in case of
loads producing shear and
moment, the situation is not
so simple as predicated by
the above eq. except in the
general sense that bond
stresses are highest in the
regions of high shear.
The nature of bond failure

 In case of plain bar, longitudinal splitting of bar with the

concrete occurs if the pull forces are greater than the adhesion
forces and friction forces.
 In deformed bar, a “bond failure” in normal weight concrete is
always a splitting failure. In splitting failure, the concrete splits into
segments due to wedging action of the lugs against the concrete.
The nature of bond failure
 Recent studies have hypothesized that the action of splitting
arises from a stress condition analogous to a concrete cylinder
surrounding a reinforcing bar and acted upon by the outward
radial components of the bearing forces from the bar.
 The cylinder would have an inner diameter equal to the bar
diameter and a thickness C equal to the smaller of Cb, the clear
bottom cover, or Cs, half of the clear spacing to the next adjacent
bar.

 The tensile strength of this concrete cylinder determines the

strength against splitting.
The nature of bond failure
 When Cs > Cb, longitudinal cracks through the bottom cover
form first.
 If Cs is only nominally greater than Cb, the secondary
splitting will be side splitting along the plane of the bars.

 If Cs is significantly greater than Cb, the secondary splitting

will also be though the bottom cover to create a V-notch
failure.

 If Cs < Cb a side-split type of failure occurs.

Development Length

 For Modern deformed bars, tests indicate that splitting

occurs when the total bond force U=u∑o per inch of length of
bar, which is transmitted from steel to concrete, reaches a
critical value.

 The development length is defined as that length of

embedment necessary to develop the full tensile strength of the
bar, controlled by either pullout or splitting.
Development Length

 In the above fig, the moment, and therefore the steel stress
is maximum at point ‘a’ and zero at the supports, if the bar
stress is fs at ‘a’, then the total tension force Abfs must be
transferred from the bar to the concrete in the distance l by
bond forces.
 To fully develop the strength of the bar, Abfy, the distance l
must be at least equal to the development length of the bar.
 However, if the actual available length is inadequate for full
development, special anchorage, such as by hooks, must be
provided.
 Modification Factors

Favorable Not Favorable

 Concrete Cover  Top reinforcement

 Spacing between  Light weight
bars aggregate concrete
 Lateral reinforcement  Epoxy coated
 Excess reinforcement reinforcement
 Basic Equation For Development length of Tension Bars
 According to ACI code, for deformed bars or deformed wire

ld 3 fy 

db 40 f c  c  K tr 

 

 db 
c  k tr
In which the term shall not be taken greater than 2.5
db
Where
α = reinforcement location factor
 Horizontal reinforcement so placed that more than 12” of fresh
concrete is cast in the member below the development length or
splice 1.3
 Other reinforcement 1.0
β = Coating factor
 Epoxy-coated bars or wires with cover less than 3db or
clear spacing less than 6d 1.5
Basic Equation For Development length of Tension Bars
 All other epoxy-coated bars or wires 1.2

 Uncoated reinforcement 1.0

 However, the product of αβ need not be taken greater
than 1.7
γ = Reinforcement Size Factor
 No. 6 and smaller bars and deformed wires 0.8
 No. 7 and larger bars 1.0

λ = Light Weight Aggregate Concrete Factor

 When light weight aggregate concrete is used 1.3

6.7 f c
 However, when fct is specified, use  
f ct
but not less than 1.0
 When normal weight concrete is used 1.0
Basic Equation For Development length of Tension Bars
C = spacing and cover dimensions, in.
 Use the smaller of either the distance from the center of the
bar to the nearest concrete surface or one-half the center-to-
center spacing of the bars being developed.
A tr f yt
Ktr=Transverse reinforcement index = 1500Sh

 Atr=Total cross-sectional area of all transverse

reinforcement that is placed with in the spacing ‘S’ and that
crosses the potential plane of splitting through the
reinforcement being developed, in2
 fyt = specified field strength of transverse reinforcement, psi
 S = Maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement within ld
center-to-center, in.
 n = Number of bars or wires being developed along the
plane of splitting.
Basic Equation For Development length of Tension Bars
It shall be permitted to use Ktr=0 even if transverse
reinforcement is present.

 Values of f c are not to be taken greater than 100 psi

because of lack of experimental evidence on bond strengths
obtainable with concretes having compressive strengths in
excess of 10,000 psi
Standard Dimensions For Hooked Bars
 In the event that the desired tensile stress in a bar can not be
developed by bond alone, it is necessary to provide special
anchorage at the ends of the bars, usually by means of a 90o or a
180o hook.
 Te dimensions and bend radii for such hooks have been
standardized in ACI code as follows.
Standard Dimensions For Hooked Bars

 The minimum diameter of bend, measured on the inside of

the bar, for standard hooks other than for stirrups or ties in sizes
# 3 to # 5,should not be less than the values given below.

Bar size Minimum diameter

# 3 to #8 6 bar diameters
#9,10 & 11 8 bar diameters
# 14 & 18 10 bar diameters
Development length and modification factors for hooked bars
 Hooked bars resist pull out by the combined actions of bond
along the straight length of bar leading to the hook, and
anchorage provided by the hook.
 Tests indicate that the main cause of failure of hooked bars in
tension is splitting of the concrete inside of the hook due to the
very high stresses.
 A total development length ldh is defined as shown in fig.

 For standard hooks,

the basic development
length is
 0.02 f y 
l  d b
dh  f c 
 
 Modification factors applied to ldh
 For #11 and smaller bar hooks with side cover (normal to plan
of hook) not less than 2 ½ in. and for 90o hooks with cover on bar
extension beyond hook not less than 2 in . 0.7

 For 900 hooks of #11 and smaller bars that are either enclosed
with ties or stirrups perpendicular to the bar being developed,
spaced not greater than 3db along the development length ldh of
the hook; or enclosed within ties or stirrups parallel to the bar
being developed, spaced not greater than 3db along the length of
the tail extension of the hook plus bend. 0.8

 For 180o hooks of #11 and smaller bars that are enclosed
within ties or stirrups perpendicular to the bar being developed,
spaced not greater than 3db along the development length ldh of
the hook. 0.8
 Modification factors applied to ldh
 Where anchorage or development for fy is not specifically
required, reinforcement in excess of that required by analysis.
A s required
A s provided

 β:
 For epoxy-coated bars 1.2
 For other bars 1.0

 λ:
 For lightweight aggregate concrete 1.2
 For normal weight concrete 1.0
Mechanical Anchorage
 For some special case, e.g. at the ends of main flexural
reinforcement in deep beams, there is not room for hooks or the
necessary confinement steel, and special mechanical anchorage
devices must be used. These may consists of welded plates,
manufactured devices, or T-headed bars, the adequacy of which
must be established by tests.

 Minimum ldh = 8 bar diameter and 6”

 Problem
 Fig. shows a beam-column joint in a continuous building frame,
based on frame analysis, the negative steel required at the end of
the beam is 2.9 in2, 2 #11 are used, providing As=3.12 in2. Beam
dimensions are b=10 in, d=18 in, and h=21 in. The design will
include No. 3 stirrups spaced four at 3 in. followed by a constant 5
in. spacing in the region of the support, with 1.5 in. clear cover.
Normal density concrete is to be used, with fc’=4000 psi and
rebars have fy=60,000 psi. Find the minimum distance, ld at which
the negative bas can be cut off, based on development of the
required steel area at the face of the column.
The No. 11 negative bars are to be extended into the column and
terminated in a standard 90o hook, keeping 2” clear to the outside
face of the column. The column width in the direction of beam
width is 16 in. Find the minimum length of embedment of the hook
past the column face, and specify hook details.
Solution

For these
top bars,
uncoated
and with
normal
density
concrete
α=1.3
β=1.0
λ=1.0
Center to center spacing of #11 bars
is 1.41
10  2(1.5  0.38  )  4.83 in.
2
One half of which is 2.42 in.
 Solution

 The side cover to bar center line is 1.5  0.38  1.41  2.59 in.
2

 And the top cover to center of steel is 3 in.

 The smallest of these three distances controls, and c=2.42”
 Potential splitting would be in the horizontal plane of the bars.

 Based on #3 stirrups at 5” spacing.

A tr fyt 0.11  2  60,000

K tr    0.88
1500Sn 1500  5  2
c  K tr 2.42  0.88
  2.34  2.5"
db 1.41
 Solution
Thus less than the limit of 2.5”. Now from equation
 
 
3 fy 
d     d
 40 fc  c  K tr  
b

 
 


  d b 
 3 60,000 1.3  1.0  1.0  1.0 
      1.41
 40 4000 2 . 34 
 55 .7 in.

 Due to excess reinforcement

2 .9
  55.7   51.8 in.
d 3.12
 Solution
 From Equation
 0.02 f y 
dh     db

 fc 

 0.02  1.0  1.0  60,000 
    1.41
 4000 
 26.75 in.

is the development length for hooked bars in columns.

In this case, side cover for the No.11 bars exceeds 2.5” and the
cover beyond the bent bar is adequate, so a modifying factor of
0.70 can be applied. The only other factor applicable is for excess
reinforcement. Accordingly, the minimum development length for
the hooked bars is
 Solution

2 .9
dh  26.75  0.7   17.4 in.
3.12
With 21-2 = 19” is the available, thus the required length is
contained within the column.

 The hook will be sent to a minimum diameter of

8x1.41=11.28 in.

 The bar will continue for 12x1.41=16.9 in. past the end of the
bend in the vertical direction.
 Anchorage requirements for web reinforcement
 The tensile strength of the stirrups must be developed for
almost their full height. Clearly, it is impossible to do this by
development length.
 For this reason, stirrups normally are provided with 90o or 135o
hooks at their upper end (see back for hook details) and at their
lower end, are bent 90o to pass around the longitudinal
reinforcement.

 In simple spans, or in the positive bending region of continuous

spans, where no top bars are required for flexure, stirrups support
bars should be used.
 Anchorage requirements for web reinforcement
 According to ACI code for special provision for anchorage of
web reinforcement, the ends of single-leg, simple U, or multiple-U
stirrups are to be anchored by one of the following means:

 For # 5 bars and smaller, and

for # 6,7 & 8 bars with fy=40,000
psi or less, a standard hook
around longitudinal reinforcement
is as shown in front fig.
Anchorage requirements for web reinforcement

 For # 6,7 & 8 stirrups with fy

greater than 40,000 psi, a
standard hook around a
longitudinal bar, plus an
embedment between mid height of
the member and the outside end
of the hook equal to or greater
0.014db fy
than fc in. as shown in front
fig.
Anchorage requirements for web reinforcement

 Each bend shall

enclose a
longitudinal bar as
in front fig.

 Pairs of U-stirrups or ties so

placed as to form a closed unit
shall be considered properly
spliced when length of laps are
1.3 ld, as shown in front fig.
 Development of Bars in Compression
 In the case of bars in compassion, a part of the total force is
transferred by bond along the embedded length, and a part is
transferred by end bearing of the bar on the concrete.

 Because surrounding concrete is relatively free of cracks and

because of the beneficial effect of end bearing, shorter
development lengths are permissible for compression bars than
for tension bars.
 Hooks are not effective in transferring compression from bars
to concrete, and if present for other reasons, should be
disregarded in determining required embedment length.
 Development of Bars in Compression

 The ACI code equation for basic development length in

compression is
0.02db fy
db 
fc

but not less than 0.0003dbfy. Modification factors given in table

should be applied but in no case is ld to be less than 8 in.

Development lengths for deformed bars in
compression

Modification factors to be applied to ldb

 Reinforcement in excess of that required by analysis

A s required
A s provided

 Reinforcement enclosed within spiral reinforcement not less

than ¼ in. diameter and not more than 4 in. pitch or within
No.4 ties spaced at not more than 4 in. on centers ………0.75
 Bars Cut Off and bend points in beams
 Four major factors affect the location of bar cut offs.
 Bars can be cut off where they are no longer needed to resist
tensile forces or where the remaining bars are adequate to do
so.
 There must be sufficient extension of each bar, on each side
of every section, to develop the force in that bar at that section.
This is the basic rule governing the development of
reinforcement.
Bars Cut Off and bend points in beams

 Tension bars, cut off in a region of moderate to high shear

force, cause a major stress concentration, which can lead to
major inclined cracks at the bar cut off.

 Certain constructional requirements.

Theoretical points of cut off or bend
 ACI Code Requirements
 For The usual case, with no special end anchorage, the full
development length ld must be provided beyond critical sections
at which peak stress exists in the bars.

 These critical section are located at points of maximum moment

and at points where adjacent terminated reinforcement is no
longer needed to resist bending.

 Bars must extend the longer of d or 12db past the flexural cut
off.
 At least one-third of the positive moment steel (one fourth
continuous spans) must be continued uninterrupted along the
same face of the beam a distance at least 6” into the support.
ACI Code Requirements

 At least, one third of the total reinforcement provided for

negative moment at the support must be extended beyond the
extreme position of the point of inflection a distance not less
than one-sixteenth the clear span, or d, or 12db, which ever is
the greatest.
ACI Code Requirements
 ACI Code Requirements
 Because the determination of cut off or bend points may be rather
tedious, particularly for frames that have been analyzed by elastic
methods rather than by moment coefficients, many designers
specify that bars be cut off or bend at more or less arbitrarily
defined points that experience has proven to be safe.

 For nearly equal spans, uniformly loaded, in which not more than
about one-half the tensile steel is to be cut off or bent, the
locations shown in above fig. are satisfactory.
ACI Code Requirements
 ACI Code Requirements
 In the above fig, the beam at the exterior support at the left is
shown to be simply supported.
 If the beam is monolithic with exterior columns or with a
concrete wall at that end, details for a typical interior span could
be used for the end span as well.
 When the bars are cut off in a tension zone, there is a
tendency toward the formation of premature flexural and
diagonal tension cracks in the vicinity of the cut end. This may
result in a reduction of shear capacity.
 ACI code requires special precautions, specifying that no
flexural bar shall be terminated in a tension zone unless one of
the following conditions is satisfied:
 ACI Code Requirements
 The shear is not over two-thirds that normally permitted,
including allowance for shear reinforcement, if any.
 Stirrups in excess of those normally required are provided
over a distance along each terminated bar from the point of cut
3
off equal to d. These binder stirrups shall provide an area
4
bw s
A v  60
fy . In addition, the stirrup spacing shall not exceed
d
8b ,where βb is the ratio of the area of bars cut off to the
total area of bars at the section.
 The continuing bars, if #11 or smaller, provide twice the area
required for flexure at that point, and the shear does not exceed
three-quarters of the design strength Vn.
Bar Splices
In Tension.
 Two types of splice
1. A-class splice requires 1.0ld lap
2. B-class splice requires 1.3 ld lap.
 Splice should not be less than 12”

 Generally B-Class.

A s provided
 When 2 and one-half or less of the total
A s required

reinforcement is spliced within the required lap length.

Bar Splices
In Compression

 For bars with fy  60,000 psi 0.0005fydb

 For bars with fy  60,000 psi (0.0009f y-24)db

But not less than 12”

 For f’c less than 3000 psi, the required lap is required to be
increased one-third.
 When bars are different sizes are lap spliced in compression,
the splice length is to be larger of the development length of the
larger bar and splice length of the smaller bar.
Column Splice

 Bars in compression must conform to the requirements for

compression splices.
 For tension bars

 If stress does not exceed 0.5 fy then

 should be B-class if more than half the bars are
spliced
 Should be A-Class if half or fewer are spliced and
alternate lap splices are staggered by ld.

 If stress exceeds 0.5 fy then

 should be B-class
Column Splice
 If lateral ties are used throughout the splice length having an
area of at least 0.0015 hS

Where S = Spacing of ties and h= Overall thickness of the

member.
The required splice length may be multiplied by 0.83 but must
not be less than 12”.

 If spiral reinforcement confines the splice, than required

length may be multiplied by 0.75, but again must not be less
than 12”