MODULE 2

GENERAL FORMAT FOR THE

SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE OR
CURRENT
MAPUA INSTITUE OF TECHNOLOGY
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

ENGR. JUN A. TERESA

Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
From ELECTROMAGNETISM, we saw how an electric
current flowing through a conductor can be used to
generate a magnetic field around itself, and also if a
single wire conductor is moved or rotated within a
stationary magnetic field, an “EMF”, (Electro-Motive
Force) will be induced within the conductor due to this
movement.

From this tutorial we learnt that a relationship exists

between Electricity and Magnetism giving us, as Michael
Faraday discovered the effect of “Electromagnetic
Induction” and it is this basic principal that electrical
machines and generators use to generate a Sinusoidal
Waveform for our mains supply.
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Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms

In the electromagnetic induction, tutorial we said that when a

single wire conductor moves through a permanent magnetic
field thereby cutting its lines of flux, an EMF is induced in it.

However, if the conductor moves in

parallel with the magnetic field in the
case of points A and B, no lines of flux
are cut and no EMF is induced into the
conductor, but if the conductor moves
at right angles to the magnetic field as
in the case of points C and D, the
maximum amount of magnetic flux is
cut producing the maximum amount of
induced EMF.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
Also, as the conductor cuts the magnetic field at different
angles between points A and C, 0 and 90o the amount of
induced EMF will lie somewhere between this zero and
maximum value. Then the amount of emf induced within a
conductor depends on the angle between the conductor and
the magnetic flux as well as the strength of the magnetic field.

An AC generator uses the principal of Faraday’s

electromagnetic induction to convert a mechanical energy such
as rotation, into electrical energy, a Sinusoidal Waveform. A
simple generator consists of a pair of permanent magnets
producing a fixed magnetic field between a north and a south
pole. Inside this magnetic field is a single rectangular loop of
wire that can be rotated around a fixed axis allowing it to cut the
magnetic flux at various angles as shown below.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
Basic Single Coil AC Generator
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms

As the coil rotates anticlockwise around the central axis which

is perpendicular to the magnetic field, the wire loop cuts the
lines of magnetic force set up between the north and south
poles at different angles as the loop rotates. The amount of
induced EMF in the loop at any instant of time is proportional
to the angle of rotation of the wire loop.

As this wire loop rotates, electrons in the wire flow in one

direction around the loop. Now when the wire loop has
rotated past the 180o point and moves across the magnetic
lines of force in the opposite direction, the electrons in the
wire loop change and flow in the opposite direction. Then the
direction of the electron movement determines the polarity of
the induced voltage.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
So we can see that when the loop or coil physically rotates
one complete revolution, or 360o, one full sinusoidal waveform
is produced with one cycle of the waveform being produced
for each revolution of the coil. As the coil rotates within the
magnetic field, the electrical connections are made to the coil
by means of carbon brushes and slip-rings which are used to
transfer the electrical current induced in the coil.

The amount of EMF induced into a coil cutting the magnetic

lines of force is determined by the following three factors.
• Speed  – the speed at which the coil rotates inside the magnetic
field.
• Strength  – the strength of the magnetic field.
• Length  – the length of the coil or conductor passing through the
magnetic field.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms

We know that the frequency of a supply is the number of

times a cycle appears in one second and that frequency is
measured in Hertz. As one cycle of induced emf is produced
each full revolution of the coil through a magnetic field
comprising of a north and south pole as shown above, if the
coil rotates at a constant speed a constant number of cycles
will be produced per second giving a constant frequency. So
by increasing the speed of rotation of the coil the frequency
will also be increased. Therefore, frequency is proportional to
the speed of rotation, ( ƒ ∝ Ν ) where Ν = r.p.m.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms

Also, our simple single coil generator above only has two
poles, one north and one south pole, giving just one pair of
poles. If we add more magnetic poles to the generator above
so that it now has four poles in total, two north and two south,
then for each revolution of the coil two cycles will be produced
for the same rotational speed. Therefore, frequency is
proportional to the number of pairs of magnetic poles,
( ƒ ∝ P ) of the generator where P = is the number of “pairs of
poles”.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
Then from these two facts we can say that the frequency
output from an AC generator is:

Where: Ν is the speed of rotation in r.p.m. P is the number of

“pairs of poles” and 60 converts it into seconds.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
Instantaneous Voltage
The EMF induced in the coil at any instant of time depends
upon the rate or speed at which the coil cuts the lines of
magnetic flux between the poles and this is dependant upon
the angle of rotation, Theta ( θ ) of the generating device.
Because an AC waveform is constantly changing its value or
amplitude, the waveform at any instant in time will have a
different value from its next instant in time.
For example, the value at 1ms will be different to the value at
1.2ms and so on. These values are known generally as
the Instantaneous Values, or Vi Then the instantaneous
value of the waveform and also its direction will vary
according to the position of the coil within the magnetic field
as shown below.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
Displacement of a Coil within a Magnetic Field
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
The instantaneous values of a sinusoidal waveform is given
as the “Instantaneous value = Maximum value x sin θ ” and
this is generalized by the formula.

Where, Vmax is the maximum voltage induced in the coil

and θ = ωt, is the angle of coil rotation.
If we know the maximum or peak value of the waveform, by
using the formula above the instantaneous values at
various points along the waveform can be calculated. By
plotting these values out onto graph paper, a sinusoidal
waveform shape can be constructed.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms

In order to keep things simple we will plot the instantaneous

values for the sinusoidal waveform at every 45o of rotation
giving us 8 points to plot. Again, to keep it simple we will
assume a maximum voltage, VMAX value of 100V. Plotting the
instantaneous values at shorter intervals, for example at
every 30o (12 points) or 10o (36 points) for example would
result in a more accurate sinusoidal waveform construction.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
Sinusoidal Waveform Construction
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
The points on the sinusoidal waveform are obtained by
projecting across from the various positions of rotation
between 0o and 360o to the ordinate of the waveform that
corresponds to the angle, θ and when the wire loop or coil
rotates one complete revolution, or 360o, one full waveform is
produced.

From the plot of the sinusoidal waveform we can see that

when θ is equal to 0o, 180o or 360o, the generated EMF is
zero as the coil cuts the minimum amount of lines of flux.
But when θ is equal to 90o and 270o the generated EMF is at
its maximum value as the maximum amount of flux is cut.
Generation of Sinusoidal Waveforms
Therefore a sinusoidal waveform has a positive peak at
90o and a negative peak at 270o. Positions B, D,
F and H generate a value of EMF corresponding to the
formula e = Vmax•sinθ.

Then the waveform shape produced by our simple single

loop generator is commonly referred to as a Sine Wave as
it is said to be sinusoidal in its shape. This type of
waveform is called a sine wave because it is based on the
trigonometric sine function used in mathematics,
( x(t) = Amax•sinθ ).
Sinusoidal Waveform
Then the generalized format used for analyzing and
calculating the various values of a Sinusoidal Waveform is
as follows:
A Sinusoidal Waveform
Sinusoidal Waveform
Sinusoidal Waveform Example No1
A sinusoidal waveform is defined as: Vm = 169.8 sin(377t) volts.
Calculate the RMS voltage of the waveform, its frequency and
the instantaneous value of the voltage after a time of 6ms.
We know from above that the general expression given for a
sinusoidal waveform is:

Then comparing this to our given expression for a

sinusoidal waveform above of Vm = 169.8 sin(377t) will give
us the peak voltage value of 169.8 volts for the waveform.
Sinusoidal Waveform

The waveforms RMS voltage is calculated as:

The angular velocity (ω) is given as 377 rad/s.

Then 2πƒ = 377. So the frequency of the waveform is
calculated as:
Sinusoidal Waveform
The instantaneous voltage Vi value after a time of 6mS is
given as:
THE WAVELENGTH - The time it takes for a sine wave to complete one
cycle is defined as the period of the waveform. The distance
traveled by the sine wave during this period is referred to as
WAVELENGTH.

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ALTERNATING CURRENT VALUES
In discussing alternating current and voltage, you will often find it
necessary to express the current and voltage in terms of MAXIMUM or
PEAK values, PEAK-to-PEAK values, EFFECTIVE values, AVERAGE
values, or INSTANTANEOUS values. Each of these values has a
different meaning and is used to describe a different amount of current or
voltage.
The Maximum or peak value Note that the dc starts and stops at
the same moment as does the
positive alternation, and that both
waveforms rise to the same maximum
value.
However, the dc values are greater
than the corresponding ac values at
all points except the point at which the
positive alternation passes through its
maximum value.

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During each complete cycle of ac there are always two maximum or peak
values, one for the positive half-cycle and the other for the negative half-
cycle.

The Peak-to-peak Value

The difference between the peak

positive value and the peak
negative value is called the peak-
to-peak value of the sine wave.
This value is twice the maximum or
peak value of the sine wave and is
sometimes used for measurement
of ac voltages.

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VARIOUS VALUES OF AC WAVEFORMS

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