Statistics

Part I
Statistics
- is the branch of mathematics that deals with the collection, organization,
summarization, presentation, and interpretation of data

Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

describes the set of data draws conclusion from the data

Types of Quantitative Research

• Descriptive – to describe
• Relationship – correlation
• Causal – cause and effect (experimental)
Example 1
The average grade of two sections in Mathematics are:
Section A – 89.56 Section B – 90.03

Descriptive:
Section B has higher average grade in Mathematics than Section A.

Inferential:
Section B is better than Section A in Mathematics.

Note: The difference between the average grades of the two sections does not guarantee
that one section is better than the other. An appropriate inferential test must be done to
arrive to a conclusion.
Related Terminologies
Population – involves every member of the group
Sample – a small portion of a population
Related Terminologies
Ungrouped data – raw data, that is, not sorted into categories
Grouped data – data that has been bundled together in categories

Ungrouped Grouped
Descriptive: Measures of Central Tendency
It is used to find numerical values that locate, in some sense, the center of a set of
data.

Mean - most commonly used measure of central tendency

- also known as average
- middle number in terms of value

Median - middle number in terms of position

- divides the data set into the upper and lower 50%

Mode - number that occurs most frequently

Example 2: Measures of Central Tendency (Ungrouped data)
The grades of some of the students is Mathematics is shown below. Find the mean,
median and mode of the set of data.
92, 84, 65, 76, 88, 90, 87, 91, 95, 86, 84, 90, 79, 68, 83, 92, 84, 93, and 89
Mean
- most commonly used measure of central tendency
- also known as average
- middle number in terms of value

Formulas
 For Population  For Sample

= =
where, = summation where, = summation
n = number of cases n = number of cases
Example 2: Measures of Central Tendency (Ungrouped data)
The grades of some of the students is Mathematics is shown below. Find the mean,
median and mode of the set of data.
92, 84, 65, 76, 88, 90, 87, 91, 95, 86, 84, 90, 79, 68, 83, 92, 84, 93, and 89
 some of the students sample
 
Solution:

=
=
=
85.05
Median
- middle number in terms of position
- divides the data set into the upper and lower 50%

 Procedure:
1. Arrange the data values in ascending order.
2. Determine the number of values in the data set.
3. a. If n is odd, select the middle data value as the median .
b. If n is even, find the mean of the middle values (nearest to ).

A. 1, 4, 8, 9, 12, 14, 21 B. 1, 4, 8, 9, 12, 14

n=7 n=6
 = = 3.5 4th number  = = 3 3rd and 4th number

Md = 9  Md = = = 8.5
Example 2: Measures of Central Tendency (Ungrouped data)
The grades of some of the students is Mathematics is shown below. Find the mean,
median and mode of the set of data.
92, 84, 65, 76, 88, 90, 87, 91, 95, 86, 84, 90, 79, 68, 83, 92, 84, 93, and 89

65, 68, 76, 79, 83, 84, 84, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 90, 91, 92, 92, 93, 95
 
Solution:
n = 19
= = 9. 5 10th number

Md = 87
Example 2: Measures of Central Tendency (Ungrouped data)
The grades of some of the students is Mathematics is shown below. Find the mean,
median and mode of the set of data.
92, 84, 65, 76, 88, 90, 87, 91, 95, 86, 84, 90, 79, 68, 83, 92, 84, 93, and 89

65, 68, 76, 79, 83, 84, 84, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 90, 91, 92, 92, 93, 95

Mode unimodal – 1 mode

bimodal – 2 modes
- number that occurs most frequently trimodal – 3 modes
polymodal – 4 or more modes

Mo = 84
Descriptive: Measures of Dispersion
Also known as Measures of Variability, it describes the degree of spread or
dispersion of a set of data

Range - difference between the highest value and the lowest value

Variance - square of the standard deviation of the data set

Standard - average difference of each value from the mean

Deviation
Example 3: Measures of Dispersion (Ungrouped data)
The grades of some of the students is Mathematics is shown below. Find the range,
variance and standard deviation of the set of data.
92, 84, 65, 76, 88, 90, 87, 91, 95, 86, 84, 90, 79, 68, 83, 92, 84, 93, and 89
Example 3: Measures of Dispersion (Ungrouped data)
The grades of some of the students is Mathematics is shown below. Find the range,
variance and standard deviation of the set of data.
92, 84, 65, 76, 88, 90, 87, 91, 95, 86, 84, 90, 79, 68, 83, 92, 84, 93, and 89

Range
- difference between the highest value and the lowest value

 
= 95 -65
= 30
Example 3: Measures of Dispersion (Ungrouped data)
The grades of some of the students is Mathematics is shown below. Find the range,
variance and standard deviation of the set of data.
92, 84, 65, 76, 88, 90, 87, 91, 95, 86, 84, 90, 79, 68, 83, 92, 84, 93, and 89

Variance Standard Deviation

- square of the standard deviation of the data set - average difference of each value from the mean
Variance Standard Deviation  
Population or = mean
Sample
Population x = individual
values
n = number of
cases
Sample

When SD is closer to zero (0), the more consistent or intact the scores are towards the mean.
Example 3: Measures of Dispersion (Ungrouped data)
The grades of some of the students is Mathematics is shown below. Find the range,
variance and standard deviation of the set of data.
92, 84, 65, 76, 88, 90, 87, 91, 95, 86, 84, 90, 79, 68, 83, 92, 84, 93, and 89
  85.05   2
x
92
x-

6.95
(x - )2

48.3025
x
84
x-

-1.05
(x - )2

1.1025
s=
∑
2
√ ( 𝑥
𝑛 −1
− 𝑥
´ )

84
65
-1.05
-20.05
1.1025
402.0025
90
79
4.95
-6.05
24.5025
36.6025
∑ ( 𝑥− ´𝑥 ) =1190.9475
 

 
76 -9.05 81.9025 68 -17.05 290.7025 =
88 2.95 8.7025 83 -2.05 4.2025 =
90 92 8.13
4.95 24.5025 6.95 48.3025
66.16
87 1.95 3.8025 84 -1.05 1.1025
91 5.95 35.4025 93 7.95 63.2025
95 9.95 99.0025 89 3.95 15.6025
86 0.95 0.9025
Measures of Relative Position
They are conversions of values, usually standardized test scores, to show where a
given value stands in relation to other values of the same grouping.

Percentile - divides the data set into 100 equal parts

Decile - divides the data set into 10 equal parts

Quartile - divides the data set into 4 equal parts

z-score - the number of standard deviations that a value is above or

below the mean of the data
Percentile, Decile and Quartile (Ungrouped data)

These measures indicate the percentage of the population less than a specific value. For
instance, after taking a national standardized test your percentile rank is P 90 or the 90th
percentile. This means that your score is higher than 90% of those who took the same exam.

 Procedure:
1. Arrange the data values in ascending order.
2. Find the required position using the appropriate formula.
Percentile: c = Decile: c = Quartile: c =
3. a. If c is a whole number, find the average of the c and c + 1 values.
b. If c is not a whole number, round up to the nearest whole number.
Example 4: Measures of Relative Position (Ungrouped data)
The grades of some of the students is Mathematics is shown below. Find the P 83, D2, and Q3
of the set of data.
92, 84, 65, 76, 88, 90, 87, 91, 95, 86, 84, 90, 79, 68, 83, 92, 84, 93, and 89

Arrange the data value in ascending order.

65, 68, 76, 79, 83, 84, 84, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 90, 91, 92, 92, 93, 95

 P :  D  Q
83 2 : 3 :
c= = c= = c= =
= 15.77 16th position = 3.8 4th position = 14.25 15th position

P83 = 92 D2 = 79 Q3 = 91
Example 5: Measures of Relative Position
On a reading examination given to 900 students, Elaine’s score of 602 was higher than the
score of 580 students who took the examination. What is the percentile for Elaine’s score?

 Percentile =
=
= 64.44
65 (round up)

Therefore, Elaine’s score places her on the 65th percentile or P65.

z-score

It is the number of standard deviations that a value is above or below the mean of the data.

Formulas
   
For Population For Sample

= =

 where, x = the value  where, x = the value

= population mean = sample mean
= population standard deviation = sample standard deviation
Example 6: Measures of Relative Position
Raul has taken two tests in his chemistry class. He scored 72 on the first test, for
which the mean of all scores was 65 and the standard deviation was 8. He received
a 60 on a second test, for which the mean of all scores was 45 and the standard
deviation was 12. In comparison to the other students, did Raul do better on the
first test or the second test?
   

= = 0.88 = = = 1.25

Raul scored 0.88 standard deviation above the mean on the first test and 1.25
standard deviation above the mean on the second test. These z-scores indicate
that, in comparison to his classmates, Raul scored better on the second test than
he did on the first test.
Example 7: Measures of Relative Position
A consumer group tested a sample of 100 light bulbs. It found that the mean life
expectancy of the bulb was 842 hours with a standard deviation of 90. One
particular light bulb from the DuraBright Company had a z-score of 1.2. What was
the life span of this light bulb?

 
=
1.2 =
108 = x – 842
950 = x

The light bulb had a life span of 950 hours.

Normal Distribution
Normal Distribution
A normal distribution, also called normal curve, is distribution of data where the mean,
median, and mode are equal, the distribution is clustered at the center, the graph is a bell-
shaped curve, and symmetrical.

Properties:
1. The graph is symmetrical about a vertical line through
the mean of the distribution.
2. The mean, median, and mode are equal.
3. The y-value of each point on the curve is the percent (expressed in decimal) of the
data at the corresponding x-value.
4. Areas under the curve that are symmetric about the mean are equal.
5. The total area under the curve is 1.
 A standard normal curve is a probability distribution that has a mean = 0 and a standard
deviation = 1.
Normal Distribution

Empirical Rule for a Normal Distribution

In a normal distribution, approximately
• 68.26% of the data lie within 1 standard deviation of the mean.
• 95.44% of the data lie within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
• 99.7% of the data lie within 3 standard deviations of the mean.
Area Under the Standard Normal Curve
 The areas under the normal curve are given in terms of -values or scores. To find the area in
between -scores, the Table of Areas under the Normal Curve will be used. Area values
from the table signify areas from the mean (z = 0).

Procedure
1. Express the z-value into three digits (z = 0.34)
2. Find the first two digits on the left column (0.3)
Area Under the Standard Normal Curve
Procedure
1. Express the z-value into three digits (z = 0.34)
2. Find the first two digits on the left column (0.3)
3. Match the third digit with the appropriate column heading (0.04)
4. Read the area at the intersection of the row and the column

Therefore, the area under the standard normal curve between z = 0 and z = 0.34 is 0.1331 or 13.31%.
Example 8: Area Under the Standard Normal Curve
Find the area under the standard normal curve between the indicated z-scores.
a. z = 0 and z = 0.93 b. z = 0 and z = -2.56

A = 0.3288 A = 0.4948
Example 8: Area Under the Standard Normal Curve
Find the area under the standard normal curve between the indicated z-scores.
c. z = - 1.87 and z = 2.09

For cases like this, find the sum of the

areas between z = 0 and to each of
the indicated z-scores. Thus,

Area = A1 + A2

0.4693 0.4817

A = 0.4693 + 0.4817
A = 0.9510 or 95.10%
Example 8: Area Under the Standard Normal Curve
Find the area under the standard normal curve between the indicated z-scores.
d. z = 1.37 and z = 2.24

For cases like this, find the difference

between the areas of z = 0 to each of
the indicated z-scores. Thus,

0.4147 Area = larger area – smaller area

0.4875

A = 0.4875 - 0.4147
A = 0.0728 or 7.28%
Example 9: Area Under the Standard Normal Curve
Find the area under the standard normal curve as indicated.
a. Above z = 0.57

Remember that half of the normal curve

has an area of 0.5. Hence, the required
0.5 area for the problem is the difference
between 0.5 and the area between z = 0
and z = 0.57.

0.2157

A = 0.5 – 0.2157
A = 0.2843 or 28.43%
Example 9: Area Under the Standard Normal Curve
Find the area under the standard normal curve as indicated.
b. Below z = 1.74

The required area for the problem is the

sum between 0.5 and the area between z
0.5 = 0 and z = 1.74.

0.4591

A = 0.5 + 0.4591
A = 0.9591 or 95.91%
Example 10: Area Under the Standard Normal Curve
A soda machine dispenses soda into 12-ounce cups. Tests show that the actual amount of
soda dispensed is normally distributed, with a mean of 11.5 oz. and a standard deviation
of 0.2 oz.
a. What percent of cups will receive less than 11.25 oz of soda?

 = A = 0.5 – 0.3944
= 0.1056 or 10.56%
=
= - 1.25
Example 10: Area Under the Standard Normal Curve
A soda machine dispenses soda into 12-ounce cups. Tests show that the actual amount of
soda dispensed is normally distributed, with a mean of 11.5 oz. and a standard deviation
of 0.2 oz.
b. What percent of cups will receive between 11.2 oz and 11.55 oz of soda?

 = A = 0.4332 + 0.0987
= 0.5319 or 53.19%
=
= - 1.5

 =
=
= 0.25
Example 10: Area Under the Standard Normal Curve
A soda machine dispenses soda into 12-ounce cups. Tests show that the actual amount of
soda dispensed is normally distributed, with a mean of 11.5 oz. and a standard deviation
of 0.2 oz.
c. If a cup is filled at random, what is the probability that the machine will overflow the
cup?
 = A = 0.5 – 0.4938
= 0.0062 or 0.62%
=
= 2.5
Try these!!!
Supply what is asked in each item.
A. Find the Mean, Median, Mode, Range, Variance, Standard Deviation, P 37, and D7 of the set of
data
40, 32, 35, 27, 19, 23, 36, 37, 41, 42, 15, 39, 33, 29, 25, 30, 19, 28, 40, 38
B. The results of a statewide examination of the reading skills of sixth-grade students are normally
distributed, with a mean score of 104 and a standard deviation of 16. The students in the top 10%
are to receive an award, and those in the bottom 14% will be required to take a special reading
class. (Normal curves are required)
a. What score does a student need in order to receive an award?
b. What is the cut-off score that will be used to determine whether a student will be required to
take the special reading class?