Wheel Alignment

Explained
 Wheel Alignment should be checked whenever new tires are
installed, suspension components installed, when the vehicle has
encountered a major road hazard or curb and any time unusual tire
wear patterns appear. 

Wheel Alignment is the Measurement of complex suspension angles

and the adjustment of a variety of suspension components. It is a
suspension-tuning tool which greatly influences the vehicle's
handling and tire wear.

Wheel alignment consists of adjusting the angles of the wheels so

that they are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the ground,
thus maximizing tire life and ensures straight and true tracking
along a straight and level road.
 The primary static suspension angles that need to be measured and
adjusted are caster, camber, toe and thrust angle. 

The following are definitions Conditions and Possible Causes of each

angle and its influence on a vehicle and its tires.
Camber
Camber is the angle of the wheel, measured in degrees, if the top of the wheel is tilted
out then the camber is positive, if it's tilted in, then the camber is negative.
 
If the camber is out of adjustment, it will cause premature tire wear on one side of the
tire's thread. When the camber is out of adjustment it can cause a pulling problem to
the side with the more positive camber. 
This usually happens when the vehicle has been involved in an accident which has
caused structural damage or damage to the strut and / or spindle assembly. Camber
also goes out of adjustment when the springs sag and causes ride height to change, or
when ball joints and or other attached parts are worn or defective. It also varies
depending on speed as aerodynamic forces changes riding height.
 
After repair and alignment, pulling problem could persist due to the insufficient and or
uneven tire to road contact. If a tire shows camber wear pattern, moving it to the rear
might be effective but replacement might be best.
 
Whenever camber changes, it directly affects toe.
 
On most front-wheel-drive vehicles, camber is not adjustable, however there
are aftermarket kits that allow sufficient adjustment to compensate for accident
damage or the change in alignment due to the installation of lowering springs.
Caster
Caster is the angle of the steering pivot, measured in degrees.
Viewed from the side, the caster is the tilt of the steering axis. When the
wheel is in front of the load the caster is positive. Three to five degrees
of positive caster is the typical range of settings, with lower angles are
being used on heavier vehicles to reduce steering effort.
 
If the caster is out of adjustment, it can cause problems in straight-line
tracking. If the caster is different from side to side, the vehicle will pull
to the side with the less positive caster. If the caster is equal but too
negative, the steering will be light and the vehicle will wander and be
difficult to keep in a straight line. If the caster is equal but too positive,
the steering will be heavy and the steering wheel may kick when you hit
a bump.
 
Caster has little or no effect on tire wear.

One of the best ways to visualize caster is to picture the caster on a

shopping cart. The pivot while not at an angle intersects the ground
ahead of the wheel contact patch. When the wheel is behind the pivot at
the point where it contacts the ground, it is in positive caster.
 
Like camber, on many front-wheel-drive vehicles, caster is not adjustable.
If the caster is out of adjustment on these vehicles, it indicates that
something is possibly bent from an accident, and must be repaired or
replaced.
 
Toe
The vehicle's toe is the most critical alignment settings relative to tire wear. if the toe
setting is just 1/32-inch off of its appropriate setting, each tire on that axle will scrub
almost 3 1/2 feet sideways every mile, therefore reducing tire life.
Like camber, toe will change depending on vehicle speed, as aerodynamic forces
changes the riding height hence affecting camber and toe due to the geometry of the
steering linkage in relation to the geometry of the suspension. 
The toe angle identifies the direction of the tires compared to the centerline of the
vehicle. Rear-wheel drive vehicle "pushes" the front tires, as they roll along the road,
resistance causes some drag resulting in rearward movement of the suspension arms
against their bushings. Most rear-wheel drive vehicles use positive toe to compensate
for suspension movement.
Front-wheel drive vehicle "pulls" the vehicle, resulting in forward movement of the
suspension arms against their bushings. Most front-wheel drive vehicles use negative
toe to compensate for suspension movement.
Toe can also be used to alter a vehicle's handling traits. Increased toe-in will reduce
oversteer, steady the car and enhance high-speed stability.
Increased toe-out will reduce understeer, free up the car, especially during initial turn-in
while entering a corner.
Before adjusting toe outside the vehicle manufacturer's specification to manipulate
handling, be aware that toe setting influences tire wear. Excessive toe settings often
causes drivability problems, especially during heavy rain. This is because most
highways have tire groves from the daily use by loaded tractor trailers. These heavy
vehicles leave groves that fill with water. When one of the vehicles front tire encounters
a puddle, it loses some of its grip, the other tire's toe setting will push causing
excessive toe-in, or pull causing excessive toe-out. This may cause the vehicle to feel
Steering Axis Inclination (SAI)
Steering Axis Inclination (SAI) is the measurement in degrees of the steering pivot
line when viewed from the front of the vehicle. On a SHORT-LONG ARM (SLA)
SUSPENSION the line runs through the upper and lower ball joints.
 
On a MacPherson strut suspension; the line runs through the lower ball joint and
upper strut mount or bearing plate. This angle (SAI), when added to the camber to
forms the included angle and causes the vehicle to lift slightly when the wheel is
turned from a straight position. The vehicles weight pushes down and causes the
steering wheel to return to the center when you let go of it after making a turn.
 
Like caster, it provides directional stability and also reduces steering effort by
reducing the scrub radius.
 
If the Steering Axis Inclination (SAI) is different from side to side, it will cause a pull
at very slow speeds. SAI is a  nonadjustable angle, it is used with camber and the
included angle to diagnose bent spindles, struts and mislocated crossmembers.
 
The most likely cause for Steering Axis Inclination (SAI) being out of specification is
bent parts, which has to be replaced to correct the condition. On older vehicles and
trucks with king pins instead of ball joints, Steering Axis Inclination (SAI) is referred
to as (KPI) King Pin Inclination.
Included Angle
Included angle is the sum of the Camber and
Steering Axis Inclination (SAI) angles Included
angle is not directly measurable. It is used
primarily to diagnose bent suspension parts.
 
If the camber is negative, then the included
angle will be less than the Steering Axis
Inclination (SAI), if the camber is positive, it
will be greater.
 
The included angle must be the same from side
to side even if the camber is different. If there
is a difference, then something is bent,
possibly the steering knuckle.
Scrub Radius
Scrub Radius is the distance between the
extended centerline of the steering axis and the
centerline of the tire where the tread contacts
the road. This distance must be exactly the
same from side to side or the vehicle will pull
strongly.
If the steering centerline is inboard of the tire
centerline, the scrub radius is positive. If the
steering centerline is outboard of the tire
centerline, the scrub radius is negative.
Rear-wheel drive cars and trucks generally have a
positive scrub radius while FWD cars usually
have zero or a negative scrub radius because
they have a higher Steering Axis Inclination
(SAI), angle.
Using different wheels other than stock can alter
the scrub radius.
Riding Height
Riding height is usually measured in inches, from the rocker panel
to the ground. A good wheel alignment charts should provide
specs, but the main thing is that the measurements should be
within one inch from side to side and front to rear.
 
Riding height is not usually adjustable except on vehicles with
torsion bar type springs, coil-over and some air suspensions. 
 
On a nonadjustable type suspensions, springs replacement is best
way to fix this problem.
 
Note: Springs should only be replaced in pairs. Changes in riding
height affect camber and toe, so if springs are replaced or torsion
bars are adjusted, the wheel must be aligned to avoid tire wear.  
Set Back
Set back is when one front wheel is set further back than the other. With
alignment equipment that measures toe by using only the front instruments, any
setback will cause an uncentered steering wheel. Any good 4-wheel aligner will
reference the rear wheels when setting toe in order to eliminate this problem.
 
Some good alignment equipment will measure set back and give you a reading in
inches or millimeters. 
Some manufacturers consider a set back of less than 1/4-inch normal tolerance.
More than that and there is a good chance that something is bent. 
 
Setback is Caused By: Manufacture or Collision.
Thrust Angle
Thrust angle is the direction that the rear wheels are pointing in relation to the centerline of the
vehicle.
 
The vehicle will "dog track" if the thrust angle is not zero and the steering wheel will not be
centered.
 
The best solution is to first adjust the rear toe to the centerline and then adjust the front toe. This
is done during a all wheel alignment if the rear toe is adjustable. If the rear is not adjustable,
then the front toe must be set to compensate for the thrust angle, allowing the steering to be
centered.
If the thrust angle is not correct on a vehicle with a solid rear axle, it often requires a frame
straightening shop to correctly reposition the rear axle.
A vehicles with independent rear suspension, the toe must be adjusted individually until it has
reached the appropriate setting for its side of the vehicle, incorrect thrust angle is often caused
by an out-of-position suspension or incorrect toe settings.
So in addition to the handling problems that are the result of incorrect toe settings, thrust angles
can also cause the vehicle to handle differently when turning left vs. right.
Alignment Ranges
The vehicle manufacturers' alignment specifications usually
identify a "preferred" angle for camber, caster and toe (with
preferred thrust angle always being zero). The manufacturers
also provide the acceptable "minimum" and "maximum"
angles for each specification. The minimum and maximum
camber and caster specifications typically result in a range
that remains within plus or minus 1-degree of the preferred
angle.
If for whatever reason your vehicle can't reach within the
acceptable range, replacing bent parts or an aftermarket
alignment kit will be required. Fortunately there is a kit for
almost every popular vehicle due to the needs of body and
frame shops doing crash repairs and driving enthusiasts
tuning the suspensions on their cars.
Steering Center
Steering center is that the steering wheel is centered when the
vehicle is traveling down a straight and level road. However most
roads are crowned to allow for water drainage, this may cause
the vehicle to drift to the right so the steering wheel will appear
to be off-center to the left on a straight road. to compensate for
this
·    The left caster should be more negative than the right, but not
more than 1/2 degree within the specified range.
·    The left camber should be more positive than the right
camber. Check the specs to see what the allowable differences.
A crooked steering wheel is one of the most common complaints
after a wheel alignment. Steering center is controlled by the front
and rear toe settings, when setting steering center, the rear toe
should be set first bringing the Thrust Angle as close to the
vehicle centerline as possible. the steering wheel is then locked
in a straight-ahead position in order to set the front toe. Please
note; before locking the steering wheel, the engine should be
started and the wheel turned right and left a couple of times.
This will take any stress off the power steering valve. Repeat the
above starting and turning of the steering after setting front toe
to ensure that the steering valve wasn't loaded again due to the
tie rod adjustments.
Toe Out on Turns
When you steer a car through a turn, the outside front
wheel has to navigate a wider arc than the inside
wheel. For this reason, the inside front wheel must
steer at a sharper angle than the outside wheel.
 
Toe-out on turns is measured by the turning angle
gauges (turn plates) that are a part of every wheel
alignment machine. The readings are either directly
on the turn plate or they are measured electronically
and displayed on the screen.  Wheel alignment
specifications will usually provide the measurements
for toe-out on turns. They will give an angle for the
inside wheel and the outside wheel such as 20º for
the inside wheel and 18º for the outside wheel. Make
sure that the readings are at zero on each side when
the wheels are straight ahead, then turn the steering
wheel so that the inside wheel is at the inside spec.
then check the outside wheel. The toe-out angles are
accomplished by the angle of the steering arm. This
arm allows the inside wheel to turn sharper than the
outside wheel.  The steering arm is either part of the
steering knuckle or part of the ball joint and is not
adjustable. If there is a problem with the toe-out, it
is due to a bent steering arm that must be replaced.
Wheel Offset
The offset of a wheel is the distance from its hub mounting
surface to the centerline of the wheel. The offset can be
one of three types.
 
Zero Offset
The hub mounting surface is even with the centerline of the
wheel.
 Positive
The hub mounting surface is toward the front or wheel side
of the wheel. Positive offset wheels are generally found on
front wheel drive cars and newer rear drive cars.
Negative
The hub mounting surface is toward the back or brake side
of the wheels centerline. "Deep dish" wheels are typically
a negative offset.
If the offset of the wheel is not correct for the car, the
handling can be adversely affected. When the width of the
wheel changes, the offset also changes numerically. If the
offset were to stay the same while you added width, the
additional width would be split evenly between the inside
and outside. For most cars, this won't work correctly.