Radio-frequency circuits

Radio-frequency circuits

Radio-frequency Amplifiers
Radio-frequency Oscillators
Mixer
Frequency Synthesizers
Narrowband Amplifier U
resonant circuit
IR
0.707IR

0

B
Zi  0.7  
0
1
fo 
1
LC 2 LC
 90 0

parallel resonant circuit 

0
fo o
B B  20.7
Qo Qo  900
where B  bandwith
(a) amplitude-frequency characteristics
f o  Resonant frequency
(b) phase-frequency characteristics
Q  Loaded Q at resonance
Frequency characteristic
Narrowband Amplifier
resonant circuit

1 1
fo  0 
2 LC LC

Zi
R0 R L
Q0   R00C  0 
0 L  C

parallel resonant circuit

fo o
B B  20.7
Qo Qo

where B  bandwith
f o  Resonant frequency
Q  Loaded Q at resonance
 The effect of signal source and load

Is Rs R0 L C RL

 ?
Equivalent resistance: R p  Rs // R0 // RL  R0
R0
Quality factor: Q Unloaded quality factor
0  L
0
Rp
Qp  Loaded quality factor
0 L
bandwidth:
20.7  0 Q p
Narrowband Amplifier
resonant circuit

1 1
fo  0 
2 LC LC

Is Rs RL
R0 R L
Q0   R00C  0 
0 L  C
Rp
parallel resonant circuit Qp 
0 L
fo o
B B  20.7
Qo Qo 20.7  0 Q p

where B  bandwith
f o  Resonant frequency
Q  Loaded Q at resonance
 Narrowband Amplifier

Vcc
vo   Rc RL 
AV  
vi re '

RC where AV  Voltage gain as a ratio;

RB1 CC2
uo Rc RL  Parallel combination of the collector
resistance and the load resistance
ui RL re '  ac emitter resistance of the transistor;
CC1
26mV
RE CE re ' 
RB 2 IE
where re '  Emitter resistance in ohms;
I E  Dc emitter current in amperes
(a) Low-frequency RC-coupled amplifier

Figure 2.5 common-emitter amplifiers

 Narrowband Amplifier
Vcc

1 f
f  B
2 LC Q
C L
RC The gain goes down away from resonance
RB1 because the impedance of the resonant
uo circuit is greatest at resonance and drops
ui CC2
RL Rapidly at higher and lower frequencies.
CC1

RB 2 RE CE

(b) High-frequency transformer-coupled tuned amplifier

Figure 2.5 common-emitter amplifiers

 Narrowband Amplifier
Vcc
T1
1 f Rp
f  B Qp 
2 LC Qp 0 L
C RL
L
The loaded Q depends on the load
RB1 resistance, the transformer turns
uo ratio, and the coupling between the
ui CC2
RL transformer windings.
CC1

RE CE
The more heavily loaded the amplifier,
RB 2
the lower its Q and the wider its
bandwidth.
(b) High-frequency transformer-coupled tuned amplifier

Figure 2.5 common-emitter amplifiers

 Example an RF amplifier has the circuit shown in the figure. Find:
(a) the operating frequency
(b) the bandwidth
Assume the loaded Q of the transformer primary is 15.

Vcc
Solution
(a) We can find the resonant frequency from equation:
C1
RL300 1
50 pF fo 
L1 2 LC
25uH 1
RB1 
56k
4 :1 2  25 10   50 10 
6 12

 4.50MHz
ui

(b) The bandwidth can be found from equation:

RB 2 RE CE
f o  4.5MHz  300kHz
10k 1.2k 0.001uF B
Q 15
 Practical Common emitter amplifier
With better impedance matching
Vcc
1
fo 
2 LC
Rd
T1
Cd L RL
RB1 L RL

C
ui C
CC1

RB 2 RE CE Cd Rd A decoupling network

Miller Effect

Practical common-emitter amplifier with tapped primary

Miller Effect

1
Cbc Z bc 
jwCbc

By feeding back some of the output signal to the input,

it reduces the gain of the circuit at high frequency.

How to reduce the Miller Effect?

The influence of the Miller Effect can be reduced somewhat by

transformer-coupling the input as well as the output
And tuning the secondary of the input transformer.
 Vcc

Rd
T1
Cd
L2 RL
C1 RB1 Cbc
L1
ui ui C2
CC1

RB 2 RE CE

Narrowband RF amplifier with tuned input and output

How to reduce the Miller Effect?

Another way to avoid the Miller effect is to use a common base amplifier.

Vcc

Rd

T1
Cd

ui RL
 The loading effect of the resistor impedances on turned circuits
can be reduced by using field-effect, rather than bipolar transistors.

Field-effect transistors are famous for their very high impedance,

But their output impedance is also much high than for bipolar transistors.
 broadband Wideband Amplifier
Not all amplifier used in communication have tightly restricted bandwidth.

Baseband part of the system

4.2MHz broadcast television signals
50MHz~500MHz a cable television system

flat

f
 Amplifier Classes

Amplifier are classified according to the portion of the input cycle

during which the active device conducts current.

This is called conduction angle and is expressed in degrees.

The active device may be a bipolar transistor, FET, or tube.

 Wideband Amplifier- Class A
Vcc

RL
L
Linear amplifier
RB1
General used as single-ended
audio amplifiers

CC1
ui
RB 2 RE CE
 Wideband Amplifier- Class B
Vcc
Compared to Class A:
Greater efficiency
RB1 Larger distortion

uo

RL crossover distortion
ui
Suppose that we have to amplify an RF signal that we know is a sine wave.
It might be possible to do with an amplifier that created a great deal of
distortion, provided that we had some means to remove that distortion
after amplification and restore the signal to its original sinusoidal shape.
This extra trouble would be worthwhile if the resulting amplifier wore
more efficient than either Class A or Class B amplification.

Class C
 Amplifier- Class C
Vcc

Sine input

RL
L Nonlinear current output
RB1

Sine output
Nonlinear
amplifier

ui
RB 2 RE CE
 iC  f

...
t High efficiency
0  2 3
Larger distortion
u BE

VBB t
 2 3
 Operating condition- Class C

Class C amplifiers would improve the efficiency by operating

In nonlinear regime, however the input has to be a sinusoidal
Wave.

Some means are needed to remove the distortion and restore

The signal to its original sine shape.
 Operating principle- Class C

The active device conducts for less than 180 degree of

input cycle.

The output resembles a series of pulses more than it does

the original signal.

The pulse can be converted back to sine waves by an output

tuned circuit.
 Comparison of three amplifiers

Class A B C

Conduction angle 360 180 < 180

Maximum efficiency 50% 78.5% 100%

Likely practical efficiency 25% 60% 75%

 Neutralization
Vcc

Rd

L Vout
Cd
RL
Rb1

Collector
Base
Vin

Emitter
Rb2 Ce
Re

Cn
Neutralization
capacitor