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Learning and conditioning

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Definitions
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience
Behaviorism
An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of
observable behavior and the role of the environment as a
determinant of behavior
Conditioning
The association between environmental stimuli and the
organism’s responses
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Classical conditioning
The process by which a previously neutral
stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a
response through association with a stimulus
that already elicits a similar response
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New reflexes from old
Unconditioned stimulus
(US)
Elicits a response in the
absence of learning

Unconditioned response
(UR)
The reflexive response to a
stimulus in the absence of
learning
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New reflexes from old
A neutral stimulus is then regularly paired
with an unconditioned stimulus.
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New reflexes from old
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
An initially neutral stimulus that
comes to elicit a conditioned
response after being paired with
an unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned response (CR)
A response that is elicited by the
conditioned stimulus
Occurs after the CS has been
associated with the US
Is usually similar to the US
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Your turn
You are visiting a house to see if you want to buy it. When you
step through the front door, you are met with the smell of
oatmeal chocolate chip cookies—just like your grandmother
used to make. Suddenly you find yourself feeling that this
house is a warm and friendly place. In this scenario, what is
the CS?
1. The smell of oatmeal chocolate chip cookies
2. The new house
3. Your grandma
4. The feeling of warmth and friendliness
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Principles of classical
conditioning
Extinction
Higher-order conditioning
Stimulus generalization
Stimulus discrimination
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Extinction
The weakening and
eventual disappearance of a
learned response

In classical conditioning, it
occurs when the
conditioned stimulus is no
longer paired with the
unconditioned stimulus.
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Higher-order conditioning
A neutral stimulus can become a conditioned
stimulus by being paired with an existing
conditioned stimulus.

Can opener + food = dog salivates

Can opener = dog salivates
Light + can opener = dog salivates
Light = dog salivates
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Stimulus generalization
In classical conditioning, occurs when a new stimulus that
resembles the conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned
response

Bell = salivation
Horn = salivation
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Stimulus discrimination
The tendency to respond differently to two or more similar
stimuli

In classical conditioning, occurs when a stimulus similar to

the conditioned stimulus fails to evoke a conditioned
response
Bell= salivation
Guitar does not
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What is learned in classical
conditioning?
For classical conditioning to be most effective, the
stimulus to be conditioned should precede the
unconditioned stimulus.

We learn that the first stimulus predicts the second.

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Learning to like
Where do sentimental feelings come from?

Objects have been associated in the past with positive

feelings.
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Learning to fear
Research suggests we can learn fear through association.
Watson and Raynor conditioned “Little Albert” to be
afraid of white rats by pairing the neutral stimulus (rats)
with an unconditioned stimulus (loud noise).
Within days, Albert was afraid of rats, and his fear
generalized to other furry objects.
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Unlearning fear
Counterconditioning
The process of pairing a conditioned stimulus with a
stimulus that elicits an incompatible response.

Another child’s fear of rabbits was removed by pairing

rabbits with a stimulus that elicited happiness.
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Operant conditioning
The process by which a response becomes more or
less likely to occur depending on its consequences.

Person’s behavior “operates on” the environment

(creates effects) which increase or decrease it. (ex:
child’s tantrum)
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Consequences of behavior
A neutral consequence neither
increases nor decreases the
probability that the response
will recur.

Reinforcement: strengthens the

response or makes it more
likely to recur

Punishment: weakens a
response or makes it less likely
to recur
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Reinforcement
A stimulus strengthens or increases the probability
of the response that it follows.
Primary reinforcers are inherently reinforcing and typically
satisfy a physiological need.
Secondary reinforcers are stimuli that have acquired reinforcing
properties through associations with other reinforcers.
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Types of reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
When a pleasant
consequence follows a
response, making the
response more likely to
recur.
Negative reinforcement
When an unpleasant
consequence is removed
following a response,
making the response more
likely to recur.
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Punishment
The process by which a stimulus
weakens or reduces the probability of
the response that it follows.
Primary punishers are inherently punishing.

Secondary reinforcers are stimuli that have acquired

punishing properties through associations with other
punishers.
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Types of punishment
Positive punishment
When an unpleasant consequence
follows a response, making the
response less likely to recur.

Negative punishment
When a pleasant consequence is
removed following a response,
making the response less likely to
recur.
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BF Skinner: The “Skinner box”,
“radical behaviorism”

Initially, the rat pressed the bar for food by

accident (randomly). Soon, however, it was
pressing the bar as fast as it could!
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Principles of operant
conditioning
Extinction
In operant conditioning, occurs when a response is no longer followed by a
reinforcer

Stimulus generalization
Stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus are more likely to trigger a
response.

Stimulus discrimination
The tendency of responses to occur in the presence of one stimulus but not
another. Could train this to occur for example teach a pigeon to peck for food at
Discriminative
only the circle by onlyStimulus
rewarding the circle
An animal or human learns that a certain
stimulus will only bring reinforcer when
ANOTHER stimulus is present. For example.
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Schedules of reinforcement
Continuous
Every occurrence of a response is reinforced. At first Learning occurs most
frequently if this is the case.

Intermittent
HOWEVER, one a response is learned, it is more resistant to extinction if it is
rewarded only occasionally or intermittently. Only some occurrences of a
response are reinforced.
Fixed-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-ratio, variable-interval
Best choice for continuation of response

Helps explain some ritual and superstitious behavior

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Schedules of reinforcement
Simple reinforcement
schedules produce
characteristic response
patterns.
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Shaping
To teach complex behaviors (w/ a low chance of
occurring by chance) , you may need to reinforce
successive approximations of a desired response
For example, training animals to do tricks (skinner trained pigeons to bowl, he
was a funny guy), getting children to make their beds (close enough THIS
time! :-)

Instinctive drift: Of course, you ignore biology

entirely. Organisms may to revert to instinctive
behavior…pigs rooting behavior….
 Behavior modification
The application of operant conditioning techniques
To teach new responses
To reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behavior
Real-world settings
Also called applied behavior analysis
Teach mentally retarded adults to dress themselves and work, help autistic kids
improve social and language skills
To reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behavior
Real-world settings.

BUT, when non-psychologist try to apply conditioning principle that often are
less than successful. Why? They may underestimate some of the principles and
delay a reward too long or accidentally reinforce unwanted behavior every so
often (intermittently)…both reinforcement and punishment are VERY easy to
apply incorrectly….
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When punishment works
When it immediately follows the behavior
When it is mild rather than harsh
When it is consistent (more important than
severity. ). Consider what happens when you
sometimes “get away with it”. Very resistant to
change.
 When punishment fails
1. When it is administered inappropriately or mindlesslly
2. When the recipient responds with anxiety, fear, or rage.
Physical punishment in childhood is a risk factor for depression , low
self-esteem and many other problems.
3. Effectiveness often temporary anyway….depends a lot on
prescence of punisher. In childhood what we all too often
learned…was not to get caught!
4. Punishment works best if it immediately follows behavior
This is often hard to accomplish. You r dog ate your shoes when you
were at work…does it do any good to punish?
5. Punishment conveys little information
Spanking a toddler for pooping in her pant doesn’t teach her to use the
potty.
6. When a consequence thought to be a punishment proves to be
reinforcing
Yelling at a child for whining or biting may be just what she was after
anyway…attention from you.
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External and internal
reinforcers
External(extrinsic) reinforcers
Reinforcers not inherently related to the behavior being
reinforced. Money, praise, gold starrs, applause…
Internal(intrinsic) reinforcers
Reinforcers inherently related to the behavior being reinforced

External reinforcers can Kill intrinsic motivation.

Preschool students rewarded for felt-tip pens and
began to use them less…
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Rewards can backfire
Preschoolers played with
felt-tipped markers.
Divided into three groups
1. Given markers again and asked to
draw
2. Promised a reward for playing with
markers
3. Played markers, and then rewarded
 Latent learning-Tolman’s 1938
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heresay, said his rats “seemed to be
deciding at maze junctions”.

Learning that isn’t

immediately expressed
in performance.

Rats received one

maze trial per day

Rats reinforced on the

11th day did just as
well as those always
reinforced.
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Social learning theory
Social cognitive theories emphasize how behavior is
learned and maintained.
Mostly through observation and imitation of others
Consequences DO play a role
BUT humans also have many “Cognitive Processes” such as
Plans, Expectations, and Beliefs
SO Observational learning involves learning new
responses by observing the behavior of another rather
than through direct experience.
Behaviorists had called it vicarious conditioning and tried
to explain it in SR terms. But social-cognitive theorists
said you really need to consider cognition