Lecture 12

The Foundations: Logic and

Proofs
Chapter 1, Part I: Propositional Logic

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• Chapter Summary
Propositional Logic
• The Language of Propositions
• Applications
• Logical Equivalences
Predicate Logic
• The Language of Quantifiers
• Logical Equivalences
• Nested Quantifiers
Proofs
• Rules of Inference
• Proof Methods
• Proof Strategy
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• Propositional Logic Summary
The Language of Propositions
• Connectives
• Truth Values
• Truth Tables
Applications
• Translating English Sentences
• System Specifications
• Logic Puzzles
• Logic Circuits
Logical Equivalences
• Important Equivalences
• Showing Equivalence
• Satisfiability
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• Propositional Logic
Section 1.1

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• Section Summary 1

Propositions
Connectives
• Negation
• Conjunction
• Disjunction
• Implication; contrapositive, inverse, converse
• Biconditional

Truth Tables
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• Propositions
A declarative sentence that is either true or false,
but not both
• California is adjacent to New York
• 1+1=2
• 2+2=5
• What is your plan today?
• Read this carefully
• Wow ! What a coincidence!
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• Propositions
A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false.
Examples of propositions:
a) The Moon is made of green cheese.
b) Today is 08/20/2019
c) Washington, D.C., is the capital of USA
d) 1 + 0 = 1
e) 0 + 0 = 2
Examples that are not propositions.
f) Sit down!
g) What time is it?
h) x+1=2
i) x+y=z
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• Propositional Logic
Constructing Propositions
• Propositional Variables: p, q, r, s, …
• The proposition that is always true is denoted by T and the
proposition that is always false is denoted by F.
• Compound Propositions; constructed from logical connectives
and other propositions
• Negation ¬
• Conjunction ∧
• Disjunction ∨
• Implication →
• Biconditional ↔
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• Compound Propositions: Negation
The negation of a proposition p is denoted by
¬p and has this truth table:
p ¬p
T F
F T

Example: If p denotes “The earth is round.”, then

¬p denotes “It is not the case that the earth is
round,” or more simply “The earth is not round.”
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• Conjunction
The conjunction of propositions p and q is
denoted by p ∧ q and has this truth table:
p q P∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Example: If p denotes “I am at home.” and q

denotes “It is raining.” then p ∧ q denotes “I am
at home and it is raining.”
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• Disjunction
The disjunction of propositions p and q is
denoted by p ∨ q and has this truth table:
p q P∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Example: If p denotes “I am at home.” and q

denotes “It is raining.” then p ∨ q denotes “I am
at home or it is raining.”
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• The Connective Or in English
In English “or” has two distinct meanings.
• “Inclusive Or” - In the sentence “Students who have taken CS202 or Math120
may take this class,” we assume that students need to have taken one of the
prerequisites, but may have taken both. This is the meaning of disjunction. For
p ∨ q to be true, either one or both of p and q must be true.
• “Exclusive Or” - When reading the sentence “Soup or salad comes with this
entrée,” we do not expect to be able to get both soup and salad. This is the
meaning of Exclusive Or (Xor). In p ⊕ q , one of p and q must be true, but not
both. The truth table for ⊕ is:

p q P⊕q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

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• Implication
If p and q are propositions, then p → q is a conditional
statement or implication which is read as “if p, then q” and has
this truth table:
p q P→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Example: If p denotes “I am at home.” and q denotes “It is
raining.” then p → q denotes “If I am at home then it is raining.”
In p → q, p is the hypothesis (antecedent or premise) and q is the
conclusion (or consequence).
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• Understanding Implication 1

In p → q there does not need to be any connection

between the antecedent or the consequent. The
“meaning” of p → q depends only on the truth values of
p and q.
These implications are perfectly fine, but would not be
used in ordinary English.
• “If the moon is made of green cheese, then I have more
money than Bill Gates. ”
• “If the moon is made of green cheese then I’m on welfare.”
• “If 1 + 1 = 3, then your grandma wears combat boots.”
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• Understanding Implication 2

One way to view the logical conditional is to

think of an obligation or contract.
• “If I am elected, then I will lower taxes.”
• “If you get 100% on the final, then you will get an A.”

If the politician is elected and does not lower

taxes, then the voters can say that he or she has
broken the campaign pledge. Something similar
holds for the professor. This corresponds to the
case where p is true and q is false.
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• Different Ways of Expressing p → q
if p, then q p implies q
if p, q p only if q
q unless ¬p q when p
q if p
q whenever p p is sufficient for q
q follows from p q is necessary for p

a necessary condition for p is q

a sufficient condition for q is p
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• Converse, Contrapositive, and Inverse
From p → q we can form new conditional statements .
• q→p is the converse of p → q
• ¬q → ¬p is the contrapositive of p → q
• ¬p → ¬q is the inverse of p → q
Example: Find the converse, inverse, and contrapositive
of “It raining is a sufficient condition for my not going to
town.”
Solution:
converse: If I do not go to town, then it is raining.
inverse: If it is not raining, then I will go to town.
contrapositive: If I go to town, then it is not raining.
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• Biconditional
If p and q are propositions, then we can form the biconditional
proposition p ↔ q, read as “p if and only if q .” The biconditional
p ↔ q denotes the proposition with this truth table:
p q P↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

If p denotes “I am at home.” and q denotes “It is raining.” then

p ↔ q denotes “I am at home if and only if it is raining.”

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• Expressing the Biconditional
Some alternative ways “p if and only if q” is
expressed in English:
• p is necessary and sufficient for q
• if p then q, and conversely
• p if q

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 • Student Learning Objectives/Outcomes
• Ability to recognize and construct proofs – chapter 1
• Ability to recognize and use equivalence relations
and partial orderings – chapter 2, 9
• Ability to use recursive definitions and solve
recurrence relations- chapter 5, 8
• Ability to understand advanced counting methods –
chapter 8
• Ability to understand graph theory and basic graph
algorithms – chapter 9, 10
• Ability to use tree terminology and basic tree
algorithms – chapter 11

•
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• Truth Tables For Compound
Propositions
Construction of a truth table:
Rows
• Need a row for every possible combination of values for
the atomic propositions.
Columns
• Need a column for the compound proposition (usually at
far right)
• Need a column for the truth value of each expression
that occurs in the compound proposition as it is built up.
• This includes the atomic propositions
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• Example Truth Table
Construct a truth table for p ∨ q → ¬r
p q r ¬r p∨q p ∨ q → ¬r
T T T F T F
T T F T T T
T F T F T F
T F F T T T
F T T F T F
F T F T T T
F F T F F T
F F F T F T

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• Equivalent Propositions
Two propositions are equivalent if they always
have the same truth value.
Example: Show using a truth table that the
conditional is equivalent to the contrapositive.
Solution:
p q ¬p ¬q p→q ¬q → ¬p
T T F F T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T
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• Using a Truth Table to Show Non-
Equivalence
Example: Show using truth tables that neither
the converse nor inverse of an implication are
not equivalent to the implication.
Solution:
p q ¬p ¬q p→q ¬p → ¬q q→p
T T F F T T T
T F F T F T T
F T T F T F F
F F T T T T T

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• Problem
How many rows are there in a truth table with n
propositional variables?
Solution: 2n We will see how to do this in
Chapter 6.
Note that this means that with n propositional
variables, we can construct 2n distinct (that is,
not equivalent) propositions.

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• Precedence of Logical Operators
Operator Precedence
¬ 1
∧ 2
∨ 3
→ 4
↔ 5

p ∨ q → ¬r is equivalent to (p ∨ q) → ¬r
If the intended meaning is p ∨(q → ¬r)
then parentheses must be used.
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• Applications of
Propositional Logic
Section 1.2

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• Applications of Propositional Logic:
Summary
Translating English to Propositional Logic
System Specifications
Boolean Searching
Logic Puzzles
Logic Circuits
AI Diagnosis Method (Optional)

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• Translating English Sentences
Steps to convert an English sentence to a
statement in propositional logic
• Identify atomic propositions and represent using
propositional variables.
• Determine appropriate logical connectives
“If I go to Harry’s or to the country, I will not go
shopping.”
• p: I go to Harry’s If p or q then not r.
• q: I go to the country.
• r: I will go shopping.
 p  q   r
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• Example
Problem: Translate the following sentence into
propositional logic:
“You can access the Internet from campus only if you
are a computer science major or you are not a
freshman.”
One Solution: Let a, c, and f represent respectively
“You can access the internet from campus,” “You are a
computer science major,” and “You are a freshman.”

a   c  f 
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• System Specifications
System and Software engineers take requirements in
English and express them in a precise specification
language based on logic.
Example: Express in propositional logic:
“The automated reply cannot be sent when the file
system is full”
Solution: One possible solution: Let p denote “The
automated reply can be sent” and q denote “The file
system is full.”
q  p
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• Consistent System Specifications
Definition: A list of propositions is consistent if it is possible to
assign truth values to the proposition variables so that each
proposition is true.
Exercise: Are these specifications consistent?
• “The diagnostic message is stored in the buffer or it is retransmitted.”
• “The diagnostic message is not stored in the buffer.”
• “If the diagnostic message is stored in the buffer, then it is retransmitted.”
Solution: Let p denote “The diagnostic message is stored in the buffer.” Let q
denote “The diagnostic message is retransmitted” The specification can be
written as: p ∨ q, ¬p, p → q. When p is false and q is true all three statements
are true. So the specification is consistent.
• What if “The diagnostic message is not retransmitted” is added.
Solution: Now we are adding ¬q and there is no satisfying assignment. So the
specification is not consistent.
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• Logic Circuits
(Studied in depth in Chapter 12)
Electronic circuits; each input/output signal can be viewed as a 0 or 1.
• 0 represents False
• 1 represents True
Complicated circuits are constructed from three basic circuits called gates.

• The inverter (NOT gate)takes an input bit and produces the negation of that bit.
• The OR gate takes two input bits and produces the value equivalent to the disjunction
of the two bits.
• The AND gate takes two input bits and produces the value equivalent to the
conjunction of the two bits.
More complicated digital circuits can be constructed by combining these basic
circuits to produce the desired output given the input signals by building a circuit
for each piece of the output expression and then combining them. For example:

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• Diagnosis of Faults in an Electrical
System (Optional)
AI Example (from Artificial Intelligence: Foundations of
Computational Agents by David Poole and Alan
Mackworth, 2010)
Need to represent in propositional logic the features of
a piece of machinery or circuitry that are required for
the operation to produce observable features. This is
called the Knowledge Base (KB).
We also have observations representing the features
that the system is exhibiting now.

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• Electrical System Diagram (optional)

Have lights (l1, l2), wires

(w0, w1, w2, w3, w4),
switches (s1, s2, s3), and
circuit breakers (cb1)

The next page gives the

knowledge base describing
the circuit and the current
observations.

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• Representing the Electrical System in
Propositional Logic
We need to represent our common-sense
understanding of how the electrical system works in
propositional logic.
For example: “If l1 is a light and if l1 is receiving current,
then l1 is lit.
• light_l1 ∧ live_l1 ∧ ok_l1 → lit_l1
Also: “If w1 has current, and switch s2 is in the up
position, and s2 is not broken, then w0 has current.”
• live_w1 ∧ up_s2 ∧ ok_s2 → live_w0
This task of representing a piece of our common-sense
world in logic is a common one in logic-based AI.
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• Knowledge Base (opt)
live_outside We have outside power.
light_l1
Both l1 and l2 are lights.
light_l2
live_w0 → live_l1
live_w1 ∧ up_s2 ∧ ok_s2 → live_w0 If s2 is ok and s2 is in a
down position and w2
live_w2 ∧ down_s2 ∧ ok_s2 → live_w0
has current, then w0
live_w3 ∧ up_s1 ∧ ok_s1 → live_w1
has current.
live_w3 ∧ down_s1 ∧ ok_s1 → live_w2
live_w4 → live_l2
live_w3 ∧ up_s3 ∧ ok_s3 → live_w4
live_outside ∧ ok_cb1 → live_w3
light_l1 ∧ live_l1 ∧ ok_l1 → lit_l1
light_l2 ∧ live_l2 ∧ ok_l2 → lit_l2
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• Observations (opt)
Observations need to be added to the KB
• Both Switches up
• up_s1
• up_s2

• Both lights are dark

• ¬ lit_l1
• ¬ lit_l2

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• Diagnosis (opt)
We assume that the components are working ok, unless we are
forced to assume otherwise. These atoms are called assumables.
The assumables (ok_cb1, ok_s1, ok_s2, ok_s3, ok_l1, ok_l2)
represent the assumption that we assume that the switches,
lights, and circuit breakers are ok.
If the system is working correctly (all assumables are true), the
observations and the knowledge base are consistent (i.e.,
satisfiable).
The augmented knowledge base is clearly not consistent if the
assumables are all true. The switches are both up, but the lights
are not lit. Some of the assumables must then be false. This is the
basis for the method to diagnose possible faults in the system.
A diagnosis is a minimal set of assumables which must be false to
explain the observations of the system.
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• Diagnostic Results (opt)
See Artificial Intelligence: Foundations of Computational Agents
(by David Poole and Alan Mackworth, 2010) for details on this
problem and how the method of consistency based diagnosis can
determine possible diagnoses for the electrical system.
The approach yields 7 possible faults in the system. At least one of
these must hold:
• Circuit Breaker 1 is not ok.
• Both Switch 1 and Switch 2 are not ok.
• Both Switch 1 and Light 2 are not ok.
• Both Switch 2 and Switch 3 are not ok.
• Both Switch 2 and Light 2 are not ok.
• Both Light 1 and Switch 3 are not ok.
• Both Light 1 and Light 2 are not ok.
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• Propositional Equivalences
Section 1.3

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• Section Summary 2

Tautologies, Contradictions, and Contingencies.

Logical Equivalence
• Important Logical Equivalences
• Showing Logical Equivalence
Normal Forms (optional, covered in exercises in text)
• Disjunctive Normal Form
• Conjunctive Normal Form
Propositional Satisfiability
• Sudoku Example
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• Tautologies, Contradictions, and
Contingencies
A tautology is a proposition which is always true.
• Example: p ∨ ¬p

A contradiction is a proposition which is always false.

• Example: p ∧ ¬p

A contingency is a proposition which is neither a

tautology nor a contradiction, such as p
P ¬p p ∨ ¬p p ∧ ¬p
T F T F
F T T F
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• Logically Equivalent
Two compound propositions p and q are logically equivalent if
p↔q is a tautology.
We write this as p⇔q or as p≡q where p and q are compound
propositions.
Two compound propositions p and q are equivalent if and only if
the columns in a truth table giving their truth values agree.
This truth table shows that ¬p ∨ q is equivalent to p → q.
p q ¬p ¬p ∨ q p→q
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
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• De Morgan’s Laws
  p  q   p   q Augustus De Morgan
1806-1871
  p  q   p   q

This truth table shows that De Morgan’s Second Law holds.

p q ¬p ¬q (p ∨ q) ¬(p ∨ q) ¬p ∧ ¬q
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T T

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• Key Logical Equivalences 1

Identity Laws: p  T  p, pF  p

Domination Laws: p T  T, pF  F

Idempotent laws: p  p  p, p p  p

Double Negation Law:   p   p

Negation Laws: p  p  T , p  p  F
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• Key Logical Equivalences 2

Commutative Laws: p  q  q  p, p  q  q  p

Associative Laws:  p  q  r  p   q  r 
 p  q  r  p   q  r 
Distributive Laws:  p   q  r     p  q   p  r 
 p   q  r     p  q   p  r 
Absorption Laws: p   p  q  p p   p  q  p

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• More Logical Equivalences
TABLE 7 Logical Equivalences
Involving Conditional Statements.
TABLE 8 Logical Equivalences
p  q  p  q
Involving Biconditional Statements.
p  q   q  p
p  q   p  q   q  p
p  q  p  q
p  q  p  q
p  q    p  q 
p  q   p  q    p  q 
  p  q   p  q
  p  q   p  q
 p  q   p  r   p   q  r 
 p  r    q  r    p  q  r
 p  q   p  r   p   q  r 
 p  r    q  r    p  q  r

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• Constructing New Logical
Equivalences
We can show that two expressions are logically
equivalent by developing a series of logically equivalent
statements.
To prove that A ≡ B we produce a series of
equivalences beginning with A and ending with B.
A  A1

An  B
Keep in mind that whenever a proposition (represented
by a propositional variable) occurs in the equivalences
listed earlier, it may be replaced by an arbitrarily
complex compound proposition.
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• Equivalence Proofs 1

Example: Show that   p   p  q  

is logically equivalent to p  q
Solution:
  p   p  q     p     p  q  by the second De Morgan law

 p    p   q  by the first De Morgan law

 p   p  q  by the double negation law

  p  p    p   q  by the second distributive law

 F   p  q  because p  p  F
  p  q   F by the commutative law
for disjunction
   p  q  By the identity law for F
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• Equivalence Proofs 2

Example: Show that  p  q    p  q 

is a tautology.
Solution:
 p  q   p  q    p  q   p  q by truth table for →

  p   q    p  q  by the first De Morgan law

  p  p     q  q  by associative and
commutative laws
laws for disjunction

 T T by truth tables

T by the domination law

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• Disjunctive Normal Form (optional) 1

A propositional formula is in disjunctive normal

form if it consists of a disjunction of (1, … ,n)
disjuncts where each disjunct consists of a
conjunction of (1, …, m) atomic formulas or the
negation of an atomic formula.
• Yes  p  q     p  q 
• No p   p  q

Disjunctive Normal Form is important for the

circuit design methods discussed in Chapter 12.
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• Disjunctive Normal Form (optional) 2

Example: Show that every compound proposition can be

put in disjunctive normal form.
Solution: Construct the truth table for the proposition.
Then an equivalent proposition is the disjunction with n
disjuncts (where n is the number of rows for which the
formula evaluates to T). Each disjunct has m conjuncts
where m is the number of distinct propositional variables.
Each conjunct includes the positive form of the
propositional variable if the variable is assigned T in that
row and the negated form if the variable is assigned F in
that row. This proposition is in disjunctive normal from.

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• Disjunctive Normal Form (optional) 3

Example: Find the Disjunctive Normal Form

(DNF) of
 p  q   r
Solution: This proposition is true when r is false
or when both p and q are false.

 p  q    r

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• Conjunctive Normal Form (optional) 1

A compound proposition is in Conjunctive Normal Form

(CNF) if it is a conjunction of disjunctions.
Every proposition can be put in an equivalent CNF.
Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF) can be obtained by
eliminating implications, moving negation inwards and
using the distributive and associative laws.
Important in resolution theorem proving used in
artificial Intelligence (AI).
A compound proposition can be put in conjunctive
normal form through repeated application of the logical
equivalences covered earlier.
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• Conjunctive Normal Form (optional) 2

Example: Put the following into CNF:

  p  q   r  p
Solution:
1. Eliminate implication signs:
  p  q    r  p 
2. Move negation inwards; eliminate double negation:
 p  q   r  p 
3. Convert to CNF using associative/distributive laws
 p   r  p    q  r  p 
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• Propositional Satisfiability
A compound proposition is satisfiable if there is
an assignment of truth values to its variables
that make it true. When no such assignments
exist, the compound proposition is unsatisfiable.
A compound proposition is unsatisfiable if and
only if its negation is a tautology.

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• Questions on Propositional
Satisfiability
Example: Determine the satisfiability of the following
compound propositions:
 p  q    q   r    r   p 
Solution: Satisfiable. Assign T to p, q, and r.
 p  q  r    p   q   r 
Solution: Satisfiable. Assign T to p and F to q.
 p  q   q  r    r  p   p  q  r    p  q  r 
Solution: Not satisfiable. Check each possible
assignment of truth values to the propositional
variables and none will make the proposition true.
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