Chapter 11: Transformation in Alloys

• Going from one phase to another takes time.

• Needs Transformation Rate for solid-solid reaction.
• For hardening, need:
– A non-fully miscible A-B binary alloy.
– A compound AxBy precipitate
(e.g. Al-Al2Cu , Fe-Fe3C, Al-Al3Mg2, …)

Required Features of the Compound

– Compound between two metals (Al2Cu)
or a metal and non-metal (Fe3C).
– Narrow composition range.
– Strong covalent bond between the elements.
– Strong particles.
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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
Transformation and Age Hardening in Alloys
Issues to Address
•Since transformations take time, what is fraction
of (BCC)
+transformation
F
C CC αFe
γ 3C
FeEutectoid vs. logarithm of t?
transformation
(ferrite)
(cementite)
(Austenite)

• Can transformation be slowed to engineer microstructure?

– You need to use a TTT (temperature-time-transformation) diagram.
– What are microstructure for steels, i.e. fine pearlite, coarse pearlite,
spheroidite, bainite, martensite, and tempered martensite ?

• Are the mechanical properties of these non-equilibrium

microstructures better?

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Phase Transformations in Alloys

Nucleation
– nuclei (seeds) act as templates on which crystals grow
– for nucleus to form rate of addition of atoms to nucleus must be
faster than rate of loss
– once nucleated, growth proceeds until equilibrium is attained

Driving force to nucleate increases as we increase T

– supercooling (eutectic, eutectoid)
– superheating (peritectic)

Small supercooling  slow nucleation rate - few nuclei - large crystals

Large supercooling  rapid nucleation rate - many nuclei - small crystal.

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Solidification: Nucleation Types

• Homogeneous nucleation
– nuclei form in the bulk of liquid metal
– requires considerable supercooling
(typically 80-300°C)
• Heterogeneous nucleation
– easier since stable “nucleating surface” is already
present — e.g., mold wall, impurities in liquid phase
– only very slight supercooling (0.1-10ºC)

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Homogeneous Nucleation & Energy Effects
Surface Free Energy- destabilizes
the nuclei (it takes energy to make
an interface)
ΔGS = 4πr 2 γ
 = surface tension

GT = Total Free Energy

= GS + GV

Volume (Bulk) Free Energy –

stabilizes the nuclei (releases energy)
4
ΔGV = πr 3 ΔGυ
3
volume free energy
ΔG υ =
unit volume
r* = critical nucleus: for r < r* nuclei shrink; for r >r* nuclei grow (to reduce energy)
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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Solidification

r* = critical radius
−2γTm = surface free energy
r *=
ΔHf ΔT Tm = melting temperature
Hf = latent heat of solidification
T = Tm - T = supercooling

Note: Hf and  are weakly dependent on T

 r* decreases as T increases

For typical T r* ~ 10 nm

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Rate of Phase Transformations

Kinetics - study of reaction rates of transformation.

• To determine reaction rate – measure degree of
transformation as function of time (while holding temp
constant)

How is degree of transformation measured?

X-ray diffraction – many specimens required
electrical conductivity measurements –
on single specimen
measure propagation of sound waves –
on single specimen
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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Rate of Phase Transformation
Fraction transformed, y
transformation complete
Fixed T
0.5 maximum rate reached – now amount
unconverted decreases so rate slows
rate increases as surface area increases
t0.5 & nuclei grow
Adapted from Fig. 11.10,

log t Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Avrami equation => y = 1- exp (-kt n)

fraction time
transformed
– k & n are transformation specific parameters

By convention rate = 1 / t0.5

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
Temperature Dependence of Transformation

135C 119C 113C 102C 88C 43C

1 10 102 104

• Transformation rate depends on T.

1
• For the recrystallization of Cu, since r= = Ae−Q /R T
t0.5
rate increases with increasing temperature
• Rate often so slow that attainment of equilibrium
state not possible!

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
Transformation and undercooling: Fe - Fe3C
Eutectoid transf. (Fe-Fe3C system):    + Fe3C
For transf. to occur, must cool to below 0.76 wt% C 6.7 wt% C
727°C (i.e., must “undercool”) 0.022 wt% C

T(°C) Cast irons have 3 - 4.2wt%C

1600

1400 L
Pearlite
  +L Formed by Eutectoid
Transformation
1200 1148°C L+Fe3C

Fe3C (cementite)
(austenite) (looks like ‘mother of
pearl’ in microscope)
FCC
1000
BCC  Eutectoid:  +Fe3C
ferrite 800 Equil. Cooling: Ttransf. = 727ºC
727°C
T  +Fe C 3
600
Undercooling by Ttransf. < 727C
0.022

0.76

400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
Dark = Fe3C
(Fe) C, wt%C
Light = ferrite
Why solubility of C more in FCC than BCC (2.1wt% vs 0.022 wt%)?
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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Fe - Fe3C Eutectoid Transformation
• Transformation of austenite to pearlite:
Diffusion of C
Austenite () cementite (Fe3C) during transformation
grain  Ferrite ()
boundary   
 
 pearlite 
Adapted from
 
Fig. 10.15, growth 
Callister & 
Rethwisch 3e. direction

• For this transformation, 100
Carbon
diffusion
rate increases with y (% pearlite) 600°C
(T larger)
[Teutectoid – T ] (i.e., T). 50 650°C
Adapted from
675°C Fig. 11.12,
(T smaller) Callister &
Rethwisch 3e.
0

Coarse pearlite  formed at higher temperatures – relatively soft

Fine pearlite  formed at lower temperatures – relatively hard
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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Nucleation and Growth
• Rate results from nucleation and growth of crystals.
Growth
%50
5
0
10
tlog 0(time) rate
Growth
Nucleation
Nucleation
0 Pearlite increases
rate increases w Fig. w/
T/ ΔT
11.1
regime

• Examples:
pearlite
Nucleation
Growth
γ
Nucleation
Growth
T way rate
rate
just below
moderatelyrate
below rate
med.
TTEE med
highlow
low high
below . TE
colony

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Isothermal TTT Diagram
• Consider: the Fe-Fe3C system, for Co = 0.76 wt% C
• A transformation temperature of 675°C.

% transformed
Transf.
100 ends
y, T = 675°C
50
Transf.
0
10 2 10 4
begins
1 time (s)
T(°C) Austenite (stable)
TE (727C)
700 Austenite
(unstable)

600 Pearlite
isothermal transformation at 675°C
1 00
50%pearli

500
0%

bct
400
time (s)
te

1 10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Austenite-to-Pearlite TTT Diagram
• Eutectoid composition, Co = 0.77wt%C
• Begin at T > 727C
• Rapidly cool to 625oC and hold isothermally.

T(°C) Austenite (stable)

TE (727C)
700 Austenite
(unstable)
- Curves show %
600 Pearlite transformation.
  - Note formation at GBs
    to reduce free energy.
10 0
50% rlite

500
0%

%
p ea

400

1 10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
time (s)
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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Pearlite Morphology
Two cases:
• Ttransf just below TE • Ttransf well below TE
--Larger T: diffusion is faster --Smaller T: diffusion is slower
--Pearlite is coarser. --Pearlite is finer.

Adapted from Fig. 10.6 (a) and (b),Callister 6e.

- Smaller ΔT: - Larger ΔT:

colonies are colonies are
larger smaller

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Hypereutectoid Transformations
– proeutectoid cementite
Consider C0 = 1.13 wt% C

T(°C) T(°C)
900 1600

A 1400 L
800

Fe3C (cementite)
+
A TE (727°C)   +L
1200 L+Fe3C
700 A C (austenite)
P 1000
A
+ P   +Fe3C
600
800
727°C
T  +Fe3C
500 600

0.022
0.76
1 10 102 103 104 400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7

1.13
time (s) (Fe)
C, wt%C
Adapted from Fig. 11.16, Adapted from Fig. 10.28,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e. Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Hypo- and Hyper- Eutectoid of Fe - Fe3C


 Fe3C

Proeutectoid Proeutectoid
(“pre” Eutectoid)

Pearlite
Pearlite
Fe3C
Proeutectoid  Proeutectoid
eutectoid  eutectoid
Fe3C
 + Fe3C Fe3C

Proeutectoid wets grain boundaries as it has a

lower free energy by forming at surface
0.38 wt% C 1.4 wt% C
Pearlite and Pearlite and
Proeutectoid  Proeutectoid Fe3C

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
Bainite: Non-equilibrium Products in Fe-Fe3C
• Bainite: αFeμm
5 (ferrite)
3C
-a lathes with long rods of Fe3C (cementite)
in -ferrite matrix.
-diffusion controlled.
• Isothermal TTT Diagram
800 Austenite (stable)
T(°C) A
TE
P
600 100% pearlite

100% bainite Fig. 11.17, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

400 A B

200 Bainite reaction rate:

100
0%

50%

r bainite = e−Q /RT

%

10 -1 10 10 3
10 5

Adapted from Fig. 11.18, time (s)

Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Spheroidite: Non-equilibrium Products in Fe-Fe3C
• Spheroidite:
- spherical Fe3C in an -ferrite matrix. 60 μmFe3Cα
(ferrite)
(cementite)
- diffusion dependent.
- heat bainite or pearlite for long times
just below eutectoid.
- Driving Force: reduce -ferrite/Fe3C
interfacial area.
• Isothermal TTT Diagram

Fig. 11.19, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Martensite: Non-equilibrium Products in Fe-Fe3C
• Martensite:
--g(FCC) to Martensite (BCT)
x
(involves
atomsingle atom jumps)
potential
Fe
C atom sites
sites

60 m
Fig. 11.22
Fig. 11.11

• TTT Diagram
800 Austenite (stable)
T(°C) TE Martensite needles
A
P Austenite
600

B
•  to M transformation..
400 A 10
50 0% - is rapid (dffusionless!)
0% % - % transf. depends on T only.
0%
200 M+A 50%
M+A 90%
M+A
10-1 10 103 105 time (s)
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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Martensite Formation

 (FCC) slow cooling  (BCC) + Fe3C

quench
tempering x
(involves
atomsingle atom jumps)
potential
Fe
M (BCT) C atom sites
sites

Martensite (M) – single phase

– has body centered tetragonal (BCT)
crystal structure

Diffusionless transformation BCT if C0 > 0.15 wt% C

BCT  few slip planes  hard, brittle
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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Phase Transformations of Alloys

Effect of adding other

elements
Change transition temp.

Cr, Ni, Mo, Si, Mn

retard    + Fe3C
reaction (and formation
of pearlite, bainite)

Adapted from Fig. 11.24,

Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Continuous Cooling Transformations

Conversion of isothermal
transformation diagram to
continuous cooling
transformation diagram

Adapted from Fig. 11.26,

Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Cooling curve

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Isothermal Heat Treatment Example

On the isothermal transformation diagram for a 0.45

wt% C, Fe-C alloy, sketch and label the time-
temperature paths to produce the following
microstructures:
a) 42% proeutectoid ferrite and 58% coarse pearlite
b) 50% fine pearlite and 50% bainite
c) 100% martensite
d) 50% martensite and 50% austenite

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Solution to Part (a)
a) 42% proeutectoid ferrite and 58% coarse pearlite
Fe-Fe3C phase diagram,
for C0 = 0.45 wt% C
Isothermally treat at ~ 680°C 800 A+
A
-- all austenite transforms to
proeutectoid  and coarse P
A+P
600
pearlite. B
A+B
C 0 − 0.022 A
W pearlite
= 50%
0.76 − 0.022 400
M (start)
M (50%)
0.45 − 0.022 M (90%)
= = 0.58 200
0.76 − 0.022

W α′ = 1 − 0.58 = 0.42
Adapted from 0
Fig. 10.29, 0.1 10 103 105
Callister 5e. time (s)
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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Solution to Part (b)
b) 50% proeutectoid ferrite and 50% coarse pearlite.
Fe-Fe3C phase diagram,
for C0 = 0.45 wt% C
800 A+
A
Isothermally treat at ~ 590°C
– 50% of austenite transforms A+P
to fine pearlite. 600 P
B
A+B
A
Then isothermally treat at ~ 470°C
400 50%
– all remaining austenite M (start)
M (50%)
transforms to bainite.
M (90%)
200

Adapted from 0
Fig. 10.29, 0.1 10 103 105
Callister 5e. time (s)
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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Solution to Part (c) and (d)
c) 100% Martensite - rapidly quench to room T.
Fe-Fe3C phase diagram,
for C0 = 0.45 wt% C
800 A+
d) 50% Martensite & A
50% austenite.
A+P
-- rapidly quench to 600 P
B
~ 290°C, hold at this T
A+B
A
400 50%
M (start)
M (50%)
M (90%)
d)
200

c)
Adapted from 0
Fig. 10.29, 0.1 10 103 105
Callister 5e. time (s)
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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Mechanical Behavior Influence of C
Pearlite (med)
Pearlite (med) Cementite
ferrite (soft) (hard)
Adapted from Fig. 10.34, C0 < 0.76 wt% C C0 > 0.76 wt% C Adapted from Fig. 10.37,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e. Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
Hypoeutectoid Hypereutectoid
Hypo Hyper Hypo Hyper
TS(MPa) %EL 80
1100

Impact energy (Izod, ft-lb)

YS(MPa) 100 Adapted from Fig.
11.30, Callister &
900 Rethwisch 3e.
hardness
40
700
50
500
0
300
1 0
0.76

0 0.5

0.76
0 0.5 1
wt% C wt% C
• Increase C content: TS and YS increase, %EL decreases

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Mechanical Props: Fine Pearlite vs.
Coarse Pearlite vs. Spheroidite

Hypo Hyper 90 Hypo Hyper

320 fine
pearlite

Ductility (%RA)
spheroidite
60
Brinell hardness

240 coarse
pearlite
spheroidite
160 30 coarse
pearlite
fine
80 pearlite
0
0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1
wt%C wt%C
• Hardness: fine > coarse > spheroidite Adapted from Fig. 11.31,
• %RA: fine < coarse < spheroidite Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
Mechanical Props: Fine Pearlite vs. Martensite

Hypo Hyper

Brinell hardness 600

martensite
Fig. 11.33, Callister &
Rethwisch 3e.
400

200
fine pearlite
0
0 0.5 1
wt% C

• Hardness: fine pearlite << martensite.

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Tempering of Martensite
Heat treat martensite to form tempered martensite
• tempered martensite less brittle than martensite
• tempering reduces internal stresses caused by quenching
TS(MPa)
YS(MPa)
1800

1600 TS
Fig. 11.34, Callister
YS

9 m
1400 & Rethwisch 3e.

1200 60
1000 50
%RA %RA
40
800 30
200 400 600
Tempering T (°C)
tempering produces extremely small Fe3C particles surrounded by 
tempering decreases TS, YS but increases %RA
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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Possible Transformations

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Needs for Processing and Age Hardening
• For hardening, need:
– A non-fully miscible A-B binary alloy.
– A compound AxBy precipitate
(e.g. Al-Al2Cu , Fe-Fe3C, Al-Al3Mg2, …)
– Control the misfit dislocations.

Required Features of the Compound

– Compound between two metals (Al2Cu)
or a metal and non-metal (Fe3C).
– Narrow composition range.
– Strong covalent bond between the elements.
– Strong particles.

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Precipitation Hardening
• Particles impede dislocation motion. • Procedure:
• Ex: Al-Cu system -- Pt A: solution heat treat
(get  solid solution)
700 -- Pt B: quench to room temp.
T(°C) L CuAl2
600 (retain  solid solution)
 +L
+L -- Pt C: reheat to nucleate
A
500  small  particles in  phase.
C  Temp.
400 Pt A (sol’n heat treat)

300
0 B 10 20 30 40 50 Pt C (precipitate 
(Al) wt% Cu
composition range
available for precipitation hardening Time
Pt B
Fig. 11.43, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
Fig. 11.41, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

• Other alloys that precipitation

harden: Cu-Be, Cu-Sn, Mg-Al
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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Influence of Precipitation Heat Treatment
on TS, %EL
• 2014 Al Alloy:
• Maxima on TS curves. • Minima on %EL curves.
• Increasing T accelerates
process.
ita ll
cip ma
“ag tes
”
ed
ion

pre ny s

era pita arge

so .
lid uil
lut

ge tes
tensile strength (MPa)

so n-eq

30
ma

%EL (2 in sample)
pre wer

d”
no

400
“ov ci
fe
20
300
149°C 10
200 204°C 149 °C
204°C
100 0
1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr 1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time precipitation heat treat time

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Recall Why Precipitation Strengthens
• Peak-aged • Over-aged
-avg. particle size = 64b -avg. particle size = 361b
-closer spaced particles -more widely spaced
efficiently stop dislocations. particles not as effective.

• Later: Precipitates can relieve their lattice misfit by

creating “misfit” dislocations around precipitate, thereby
reducing opposing stress field to dislocation glide.
So it is not just size.
- Thus, “over-aged” precipitates are less effective at
stopping dislocations.

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
Basic features required for age-hardening
T
solid solution 

 compound


A CB

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Formation of the compound

T
α 100% 




Coarse Fine

A alloy composition CB

By length of annealing time

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Fraction of the compound (Lever Rule)
T
 

tie line
T
C 0 −C α f
f fθ =
C θ −C α

A C C0 CB C

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
Al-rich Al-Mg: Al solid-solution +  Al3Mg2

=Al3Mg2

Note that alloy is 2/5 Mg or 40at% Mg

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Al-rich Al-Mg: Al3Mg2 fraction
Anneal T=250 C
Average C0=0.1
C=0.05 C=0.40

C 0 −C α
fβ =
T C β −C α
0.10 −0.05
= = 0.142
0.40 −0.05

C C0 14% is  phase.
C
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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
Hardening in Al-Cu: phases, microstructure, aging.

Heat treatment at small wt% Cu

• solid-solution  precipitation

• anneal at fix T  coarsening

(need high enough T for diffusion)

• anneal time controls phase (” or  in 

c0 phase), size of particle and local strain.

• Ageing creates ” or  phase in  phase.

Plate-like precipitates (GP zones) in Al-Cu

• initially 25 atoms wide and 2 layers thick
• coarsening creates larger zones.
• “Coherent” precipitate gives larger stress field.

 solid-solution ” phase in 
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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Hardening in Al-Cu: phases, microstructure, aging.
Heat treatment at small wt% Cu

• ”phase is disordered and coherent •  phase is ordered and incoherent

with  phase lattice (large strain fields). with lattice due to misfit dislocations
that provide strain relief around particle.

Plate-like precipitates (GP zones) in Al-Cu

• “Coherent” precipitate gives larger stress field.
• “Incoherent” precipitate reduces larger stress field.

Example of
“misfit” dislocations

 ” 
Coherent Incoherent boundary
Solid-solution
boundaries with misfit dislocations
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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
Hardening in Al-Cu: mechanical properties and aging.
Over-aging occurs when
” misfit dislocations form.
  Why does this affect TS?
UTS

YS
149 C • Note that temperature affects aging.
260 C
For higher T, the faster the precipitates
204 C coarsen (i.e. grows) and relaxes strain.
• The higher T, the faster aging occurs.
Duration of Heat Treatment (h)

Boeing 767 has wing skin with

Al 7150-T651 (6.2Zn, 2.3 Cu,
2.3 Mg, 0.12 Zr) forming
• ’ particles
•  MgZn2
• GB decorated w/ ’ particles.

 ” 
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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
Hardening in Al-alloys: Boeing Airplane Skin

TEM of microstructure from 7150-T651 Al-alloy

(6.2Zn, 2.3Cu, 2.3Mg, 0.12Zr, Al-balance)

Light regions: Al solid-solution

Dark regions: small plate-shaped (majority) ’-phase (non-equilibrium)
remainder (minority) -phase (equilibrium)

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Synopsis on Hardening via Precipitates
• Steels: increase TS, Hardness (and cost) by adding
- C (low alloy steels)
- Cr, V, Ni, Mo, W (high alloy steels)
- ductility usually decreases w/additions.
• Non-ferrous: Cu, Al, Ti, Mg, Refractory, and noble metals.
• Fabrication techniques: forming, casting, joining.
• Hardenability: increases with alloy content.
• Microstructure dictates affect on mechanical behavior, and
Phase Diagram reveals possible micorstructure.
e.g., Al-Al2Cu (equilibrium case) and Fe-Fe3C (metastable case).
planar precipitates pearlite, bainite, austenite, ferrite, spheriodite
• T-T-T Diagram reveals processing to achieve microstructure.
• Solid-solutions, substitutional and interstitial compound different.
• Precipitation hardening
-effective means to increase strength in Al, Cu, and Mg alloys.
- do not “over age”, which introduces misfit dislocations.

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
 Melting & Glass Transition Temps.

What factors affect Tm and Tg?

• Both Tm and Tg increase with
increasing chain stiffness
• Chain stiffness increased by
presence of
1. Bulky sidegroups
2. Polar groups or sidegroups
3. Chain double bonds and
aromatic chain groups

• Regularity of repeat unit

arrangements – affects Tm only

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008
Summary: TTT Diagram and Microstructure
• Precipitation hardening: Two-phase regions containing metal +
ordered compound needed. (Al, Mg alloys precipitation hardenable.)

• Two-phase microstructure (with stiffer compound) leads to increase

in TS, UTS, Hardness but to decrease in ductility.

• Type of microstructure dictates affect on mechanical behavior.

e.g., Al-Al2Cu (equilibrium case) and Fe-Fe3C (metastable case).
planar precipitates pearlite, bainite, austenite, ferrite, spheriodite

• Controlling composition, fractions of phases, microstructure via T-T-T

diagram reveals processing route and subsequent mechanical
behavior.

• Difference between substitutional compound or solid solution and

interstitial compound (atom + small impurity).

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004, 2006-2008