PowerPoint® Lecture Slides

prepared by
Janice Meeking,
Mount Royal College

CHAPTER 15
The Special
Senses:
Part A

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Eye and Vision

• 70% of all sensory receptors are in the eye

• Nearly half of the cerebral cortex is involved in
processing visual information!
• Most of the eye is protected by a cushion of
fat and the bony orbit

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 Accessory Structures of the Eye

• Protect the eye and aid eye function

• Eyebrows
• Eyelids (palpebrae)
• Conjunctiva
• Lacrimal apparatus
• Extrinsic eye muscles

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 Eyebrow

Eyelid

Eyelashes

Site where
conjunctiva
merges with
cornea
Palpebral
fissure
Lateral
commissure

Iris

Eyelid Sclera
Pupil Lacrimal Medial
(covered by caruncle commissure
conjunctiva)
(a) Surface anatomy of the right eye

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.1a

 Eyebrows

• Overlie the supraorbital margins

• Function in
• Shading the eye
• Preventing perspiration from reaching the eye

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 Eyelids

• Protect the eye anteriorly

• Palpebral fissure—separates eyelids
• Lacrimal caruncle—elevation at medial
commissure; contains oil and sweat glands
• Tarsal plates—internal supporting connective
tissue sheet
• Levator palpebrae superioris—gives the upper
eyelid mobility

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 Eyelids

• Eyelashes
• Nerve endings of follicles initiate reflex blinking
• Lubricating glands associated with the eyelids
• Tarsal (Meibomian) glands
• Sebaceous glands associated with follicles
• Ciliary glands between the hair follicles

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 Levator palpebrae
superioris muscle
Orbicularis oculi muscle
Eyebrow
Tarsal plate
Palpebral conjunctiva
Tarsal glands
Cornea
Palpebral fissure

Eyelashes
Bulbar conjunctiva

Conjunctival sac

Orbicularis oculi muscle

(b) Lateral view; some structures shown in sagittal section

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.1b

 Conjunctiva

• Transparent membrane
• Palpebral conjunctiva lines the eyelids
• Bulbar conjunctiva covers the white of the
eyes
• Produces a lubricating mucous secretion

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 Lacrimal Apparatus

• Lacrimal gland and ducts that connect to nasal cavity

• Lacrimal secretion (tears)
• Dilute saline solution containing mucus, antibodies,
and lysozyme
• Blinking spreads the tears toward the medial
commissure
• Tears enter paired lacrimal canaliculi via the lacrimal
puncta
• Drain into the nasolacrimal duct

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 Lacrimal sac
Lacrimal gland
Excretory ducts
of lacrimal glands
Lacrimal punctum
Lacrimal canaliculus

Nasolacrimal duct

Inferior meatus
of nasal cavity
Nostril

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.2

 Extrinsic Eye Muscles

• Six straplike extrinsic eye muscles

• Originate from the bony orbit
• Enable the eye to follow moving objects
• Maintain the shape of the eyeball
• Four rectus muscles originate from the common
tendinous ring; names indicate the movements they
promote
• Two oblique muscles move the eye in the vertical
plane and rotate the eyeball

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 Superior oblique
muscle
Superior oblique
tendon
Superior rectus
muscle

Lateral rectus
muscle

Inferior rectus Inferior oblique

muscle muscle
(a) Lateral view of the right eye
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.3a
 Trochlea
Superior oblique
muscle
Superior oblique Axis at center
tendon of eye
Superior rectus Inferior
muscle rectus muscle
Medial
rectus muscle
Lateral
rectus muscle
Common
tendinous ring
(b) Superior view of the right eye
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.3b
 Controlling
Muscle Action cranial nerve
Lateral rectus Moves eye laterally VI (abducens)
Medial rectus Moves eye medially III (oculomotor)
Superior rectus Elevates eye and turns it medially III (oculomotor)
Inferior rectus Depresses eye and turns it medially III (oculomotor)
Inferior oblique Elevates eye and turns it laterally III (oculomotor)
Superior oblique Depresses eye and turns it laterally IV (trochlear)

(c) Summary of muscle actions and innervating cranial nerves

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.3c

 Structure of the Eyeball

• Wall of eyeball contains three layers

• Fibrous
• Vascular
• Sensory
• Internal cavity is filled with fluids called
humors
• The lens separates the internal cavity into
anterior and posterior segments (cavities)

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 Ora serrata
Ciliary body
Ciliary zonule Sclera
(suspensory Choroid
ligament) Retina
Cornea Macula lutea
Iris Fovea centralis
Pupil Posterior pole
Anterior pole Optic nerve
Anterior
segment (contains
aqueous humor)
Lens
Scleral venous Central artery
sinus and vein of
Posterior segment the retina
(contains vitreous humor) Optic disc
(blind spot)
(a) Diagrammatic view. The vitreous
humor is illustrated only in the
bottom part of the eyeball.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.4a
 Fibrous Layer

• Outermost layer; dense avascular connective

tissue
• Two regions: sclera and cornea
1.Sclera
• Opaque posterior region
• Protects and shapes eyeball
• Anchors extrinsic eye muscles

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 Fibrous Layer

2.Cornea:
• Transparent anterior 1/6 of fibrous layer
• Bends light as it enters the eye
• Sodium pumps of the corneal endothelium on
the inner face help maintain the clarity of the
cornea
• Numerous pain receptors contribute to
blinking and tearing reflexes

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 Vascular Layer (Uvea)

• Middle pigmented layer

• Three regions: choroid, ciliary body, and iris
1. Choroid region
• Posterior portion of the uvea
• Supplies blood to all layers of the eyeball
• Brown pigment absorbs light to prevent
visual confusion

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 Vascular Layer

2.Ciliary body
• Ring of tissue surrounding the lens
• Smooth muscle bundles (ciliary muscles)
control lens shape
• Capillaries of ciliary processes secrete fluid
• Ciliary zonule (suspensory ligament) holds
lens in position

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 Vascular Layer

3. Iris
• The colored part of the eye
• Pupil—central opening that regulates the amount of
light entering the eye
• Close vision and bright light—sphincter papillae
(circular muscles) contract; pupils constrict
• Distant vision and dim light—dilator papillae
(radial muscles) contract; pupils dilate
• Changes in emotional state—pupils dilate when
the subject matter is appealing or requires
problem-solving skills

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 Parasympathetic + Sympathetic +

Sphincter pupillae Iris (two muscles) Dilator pupillae

muscle contraction • Sphincter pupillae muscle contraction
decreases pupil size. • Dilator pupillae increases pupil size.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.5

 Sensory Layer: Retina

• Delicate two-layered membrane

• Pigmented layer
• Outer layer
• Absorbs light and prevents its scattering
• Stores vitamin A

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 Sensory Layer: Retina

• Neural layer
• Photoreceptor: transduce light energy
• Cells that transmit and process signals:
bipolar cells, ganglion cells, amacrine cells,
and horizontal cells

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 Pathway of light

Neural layer of retina

Pigmented
layer of
retina
Choroid
Sclera
Optic disc

Central artery
and vein of retina Optic
nerve

(a) Posterior aspect of the eyeball

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.6a

 The Retina

• Ganglion cell axons

• Run along the inner surface of the retina
• Leave the eye as the optic nerve
• Optic disc (blind spot)
• Site where the optic nerve leaves the eye
• Lacks photoreceptors

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 Photoreceptors
Bipolar
Ganglion • Rod
cells • Cone
cells

Amacrine cell
Horizontal cell
Pathway of signal output Pigmented
Pathway of light layer of retina
(b) Cells of the neural layer of the retina

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.6b

 Photoreceptors

• Rods
• More numerous at peripheral region of retina,
away from the macula lutea
• Operate in dim light
• Provide indistinct, fuzzy, non color peripheral
vision

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 Photoreceptors

• Cones
• Found in the macula lutea; concentrated in the
fovea centralis
• Operate in bright light
• Provide high-acuity color vision

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 Blood Supply to the Retina

• Two sources of blood supply

• Choroid supplies the outer third
(photoreceptors)
• Central artery and vein of the retina supply the
inner two-thirds

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 Central
artery
and vein
emerging
from the
optic disc
Macula
lutea
Optic disc

Retina

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.7

 Internal Chambers and Fluids

• The lens and ciliary zonule separate the

anterior and posterior segments

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 Ora serrata
Ciliary body
Ciliary zonule Sclera
(suspensory Choroid
ligament) Retina
Cornea Macula lutea
Iris Fovea centralis
Pupil Posterior pole
Anterior pole Optic nerve
Anterior
segment (contains
aqueous humor)
Lens
Scleral venous Central artery
sinus and vein of
Posterior segment the retina
(contains vitreous humor) Optic disc
(blind spot)
(a) Diagrammatic view. The vitreous
humor is illustrated only in the
bottom part of the eyeball.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.4a
 Internal Chambers and Fluids

• Posterior segment contains vitreous humor that:

• Transmits light
• Supports the posterior surface of the lens
• Holds the neural retina firmly against the pigmented
layer
• Contributes to intraocular pressure
• Anterior segment is composed of two chambers
• Anterior chamber—between the cornea and the iris
• Posterior chamber—between the iris and the lens

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 Internal Chambers and Fluids

• Anterior segment contains aqueous humor

• Plasma like fluid continuously filtered from capillaries
of the ciliary processes
• Drains via the scleral venous sinus (canal of Schlemm)
at the sclera-cornea junction
• Supplies nutrients and oxygen mainly to the lens and
cornea but also to the retina, and removes wastes
• Glaucoma: compression of the retina and optic nerve
if drainage of aqueous humor is blocked

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 Iris
Posterior
Lens epithelium segment
Lens (contains
Cornea vitreous
2
Corneal epithelium humor)
Corneal endothelium
Aqueous humor Ciliary zonule
(suspensory
Anterior Anterior ligament)
segment chamber
(contains Posterior
aqueous chamber Ciliary body
3
humor) Scleral venous
1
Ciliary
1 Aqueous humor is sinus
formed by filtration Corneal- processes
from the capillaries in scleral junction
the ciliary processes. Ciliary
2 Aqueous humor flows from the Bulbar muscle
posterior chamber through the
pupil into the anterior chamber. conjunctiva
Some also flows through the Sclera
vitreous humor (not shown).
3 Aqueous humor is reabsorbed Cornea Lens
into the venous blood by the
scleral venous sinus.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.8
 Lens

• Biconvex, transparent, flexible, elastic, and avascular

• Allows precise focusing of light on the retina
• Cells of lens epithelium differentiate into lens fibers
that form the bulk of the lens
• Lens fibers—cells filled with the transparent protein
crystallin
• Lens becomes denser, more convex, and less elastic
with age
• Cataracts (clouding of lens) occur as a consequence of
aging, diabetes mellitus, heavy smoking, and frequent
exposure to intense sunlight
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Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.9
 The Ear: Hearing and Balance

• Three parts of the ear

1. External (outer) ear
2. Middle ear (tympanic cavity)
3. Internal (inner) ear

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 The Ear: Hearing and Balance

• External ear and middle ear are involved with

hearing
• Internal ear (labyrinth) functions in both
hearing and equilibrium
• Receptors for hearing and balance
• Respond to separate stimuli
• Are activated independently

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 Middle Internal ear
External ear (labyrinth)
ear

Auricle
(pinna)

Helix

Lobule
External
acoustic Tympanic Pharyngotympanic
meatus membrane (auditory) tube
(a) The three regions of the ear
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.25a
 External Ear

• The auricle (pinna) is composed of:

• Helix (rim)
• Lobule (earlobe)
• External acoustic meatus (auditory canal)
• Short, curved tube lined with skin bearing
hairs, sebaceous glands, and ceruminous
glands

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 External Ear

• Tympanic membrane (eardrum)

• Boundary between external and middle ears
• Connective tissue membrane that vibrates in
response to sound
• Transfers sound energy to the bones of the
middle ear

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 Middle Ear

• A small, air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity in the

temporal bone
• Flanked laterally by the eardrum
• Flanked medially by bony wall containing the
oval (vestibular) and round (cochlear) windows

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 Middle Ear

• Epitympanic recess—superior portion of the

middle ear
• Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube—connects
the middle ear to the nasopharynx
• Equalizes pressure in the middle ear cavity
with the external air pressure

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 Oval window
(deep to stapes) Semicircular
Entrance to mastoid canals
antrum in the
epitympanic recess
Malleus
(hammer) Vestibule
Auditory Incu
ossicles (anvil) Vestibular
Stapes nerve
(stirrup) Cochlear
Tympanic membrane nerve
Cochlea
Round window

Pharyngotympanic
(b) Middle and internal ear (auditory) tube
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.25b
 Ear Ossicles

• Three small bones in tympanic cavity: the

malleus, incus, and stapes
• Suspended by ligaments and joined by
synovial joints
• Transmit vibratory motion of the eardrum to the
oval window
• Tensor tympani and stapedius muscles
contract reflexively in response to loud sounds
to prevent damage to the hearing receptors

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 Epitympanic
Superior Malleus Incus recess

Lateral

Anterior

View

Pharyngotym-
panic tube

Tensor Tympanic Stapes Stapedius

tympani membrane muscle
muscle (medial view)
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.26
 Internal Ear

• Bony labyrinth
• Tortuous channels in the temporal bone
• Three parts: vestibule, semicircular canals,
and cochlea
• Filled with perilymph
• Series of membranous sacs within the bony
labyrinth
• Filled with a potassium-rich endolymph

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 Superior vestibular ganglion
Inferior vestibular ganglion

Temporal
Semicircular bone
ducts in Facial nerve
semicircular
canals Vestibular
nerve
Anterior
Posterior
Lateral
Cochlear
Cristae ampullares nerve
in the membranous Maculae
ampullae Spiral organ
Utricle in (of Corti)
vestibule Cochlear
duct
Saccule in in cochlea
vestibule Stapes in Round
oval window window

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.27

 Vestibule

• Central egg-shaped cavity of the bony labyrinth

• Contains two membranous sacs
1. Saccule is continuous with the cochlear duct
2. Utricle is continuous with the semicircular canals
• These sacs
• House equilibrium receptor regions (maculae)
• Respond to gravity and changes in the position of the
head

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 Semicircular Canals

• Three canals (anterior, lateral, and posterior)

that each define two-thirds of a circle
• Membranous semicircular ducts line each
canal and communicate with the utricle
• Ampulla of each canal houses equilibrium
receptor region called the crista ampullaris
• Receptors respond to angular (rotational)
movements of the head

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 Superior vestibular ganglion
Inferior vestibular ganglion

Temporal
Semicircular bone
ducts in Facial nerve
semicircular
canals Vestibular
nerve
Anterior
Posterior
Lateral
Cochlear
Cristae ampullares nerve
in the membranous Maculae
ampullae Spiral organ
Utricle in (of Corti)
vestibule Cochlear
duct
Saccule in in cochlea
vestibule Stapes in Round
oval window window

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.27

 The Cochlea

• A spiral, conical, bony chamber

• Extends from the vestibule
• Coils around a bony pillar (modiolus)
• Contains the cochlear duct, which houses the
spiral organ (of Corti) and ends at the cochlear
apex

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 The Cochlea

• The cavity of the cochlea is divided into three

chambers
• Scala vestibuli—abuts the oval window, contains
perilymph
• Scala media (cochlear duct)—contains endolymph
• Scala tympani—terminates at the round window;
contains perilymph
• The scalae tympani and vestibuli are continuous with
each other at the helicotrema (apex)

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 The Cochlea

• The “roof” of the cochlear duct is the

vestibular membrane
• The “floor” of the cochlear duct is composed
of:
• The bony spiral lamina
• The basilar membrane, which supports the
organ of Corti
• The cochlear branch of nerve VIII runs from
the organ of Corti to the brain

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 Modiolus Cochlear nerve,
division of the
vestibulocochlear
nerve (VIII)
Spiral ganglion
Osseous spiral lamina
Vestibular membrane

Cochlear duct
(scala media)
(a) Helicotrema

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.28a

 Vestibular membrane Osseous spiral lamina
Tectorial membrane
Scala Spiral
Cochlear duct vestibuli ganglion
(scala media; (contains
contains perilymph)
endolymph)
Stria
vascularis
Spiral organ
(of Corti) Scala tympani
Basilar (contains
membrane perilymph)

(b)
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.28b
 Tectorial membrane Inner hair cell

Hairs (stereocilia) Afferent nerve

fibers
Outer hair cells

Supporting cells

Fibers of
cochlear
nerve

Basilar
membrane
(c)
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 15.28c