Unit 4:

Geometric Design
 INTRODUCTION
Geometric design of a railway track discusses all those parameters
which affect the geometry of the track. These parameters are as
follows:
1. Gradients in the track, including grade compensation, rising
gradient, and falling gradient
2. Curvature of the track, including horizontal and vertical curves,
transition curves, sharpness of the curve in terms of radius or
degree of the curve, cant or superelevation on curves, etc.
3. Alignment of the track, including straight as well as curved
alignment
NECESSITY FOR GEOMETRIC DESIGN

1. To ensure the smooth and safe running of trains

2. To achieve maximum speeds
3. To carry heavy axle loads
4. To avoid accidents and derailments due to a defective
permanent way
5. To ensure that the track requires least maintenance
6. For good aesthetics
 Railway Alignment
Alignment of railway line refers to the direction and position
given to the center line of the railway track on the ground in the
horizontal and vertical planes.
• Horizontal alignment:- The direction of the railway track in the
plan including the straight path and the curves it follows.
• Vertical alignment:- The direction it follows in a vertical plane
including the level track, gradients, and vertical curves.
 Importance of Good Alignment
• A new railway line should be aligned carefully after proper
considerations.
• Railway line constructions are capital-intensive projects, once
constructed, it is very difficult to change the alignment of a
railway line because of the costly structures involved, difficulty
in getting additional land for the new alignment
• Improper alignment may ultimately prove to be more costly
and may not be able to fulfill the desired objectives.
 Basic Requirements of an Ideal Alignment

1. Purpose of the New Railway Line

2. Integrated Development
3. Economic Considerations
 Basic Requirements of an Ideal Alignment

1. Purpose of the New Railway Line

The alignment of a new railway line should serve the basic purpose
for which the railway line is being constructed.
As brought out earlier, the purpose may include
• Strategic Considerations,
• Political Considerations,
• Developing Of Backward Areas,
• Connecting New Trade Centers, And
• Shortening Existing Rail Lines.
2. Integrated Development
The new railway line should fit in with the general planning and
form a part of the integrated development of the country.
3. Economic Considerations
1. Shortest route
2. Construction and maintenance cost
3. Minimum operational expenses
4. Maximum Safety and Comfort
5. Aesthetic Considerations
 Selection of a Good Alignment

Normally, a direct straight route connecting two points is the

shortest and most economical route for a railway line, but there
are practical problems and other compulsions which necessitate
deviation from this route.

The various factors involved is the selection of a good

alignment for a railway line are given below.
 1. Position of Roads and Road
1. Choice of Gauge Crossings
2. Obligatory or Controlling Points
2. Proximity of Labour and Material
3. Topography of the Country 3. Location of Railway Stations and
4. Geometrical Standards Yards
4. Religious and Historical
5. Geological Formation Monuments
5. Political Considerations
 Gradients & Grade Compensation
GRADIENT :-
Any departure of the track from the level is known as Grade
or Gradient .
• An up or rising gradient is one when the track rise in the
direction of movement.
• A down or falling gradient is one when the track fall in
direction of movement.
Gradient is measured either
By the extent of rise/fall in 100 units horizontal distance
OR
The horizontal distance travelled for a rise/fall in 1 unit.
An alignment which rises 2m in a horizontal distance of 50m
would be shown either as 4 in 100 i.e., 4% or 1 in 25

Rail T
Gradient is 4% r ack
Or 2m

1 in 25
50m
Gradient are provided on the tracks due to the following
reasons:

• To provide a uniform rate of rise or fall as far as possible.

• To reach the various station located at different elevation
• To reduce the cost of earth work.
 Various gradients used on railway tracks can be classified
under the following heads
1. Ruling gradient
2. Momentum gradient
3. Pusher or helper gradient
4. Gradient at station yards
 Ruling gradient
•The  gradient which determines the maximum load that the
engine can haul on the section.
OR
It is the maximum gradient allowed on the track section.
– It is the maximum gradient (steepest gradient), which may be
permitted on the section of the track.
– It is determined by maximum load that a locomotive can haul with
maximum permissible speed.
– Extra pull required by locomotive on gradient with “” inclination.
 
= W X Sine = W X tan = W X Gradient
 Indian standards do not specify any fixed ruling gradient
due to the varying nature of the country, speed and traffic.
Generally, with one locomotive train, the following gradient are
adopted

In Plain Terrain 1 in 150 To 1 in 200

In Hilly regions 1 in 100 To 1 in 150

 Momentum gradient
Momentum gradient steeper than ruling gradient that is overcome
by momentum gathered while having a run in plane or on falling
gradient in valleys.

• Use additional kinetic energy received during run on a section.

• No obstruction like signals are provided on section with these
gradients.(means the train should not be stopped at that
territory)
• For example, in valleys, a falling gradient is usually followed
by rising gradient acquires sufficient momentum.
• This momentum gives additional kinetic energy to the
moving train which would enable the train to overcome a
steeper rising gradient than the ruling gradient for a certain
length of the track.
• This rising gradient is called momentum gradient and this
gradient is steeper than ruling gradient.
 Pusher or Helper gradient
• Gradient steeper than ruling gradient requiring extra
locomotive.
• It reduces the length of a railway section.
• It also reduces the overall cost.

Examples : In Darjeeling Railways 1 in 37 Pusher gradient is

used on Western Ghats, B.G tracks & N.G tracks 1 in 25 is
provided.
 Gradient at Station Yards
As per as possible the track along the stations & yards should
be level or gradients should be sufficiently low.
• To prevent standing vehicle from rolling & moving away from
the yard due to combined effect of gravity & strong winds.
• To reduce additional resistive forces required to start a
locomotive to the extent possible.
• Minimum gradient from drainage consideration.
• On Indian railways, maximum gradient permitted is 1 in 400
in station yards & minimum gradient permitted is 1 in 1000
 Grade Compensation ( On Curves):-
If a curve is provided on a track with ruling gradient, the resistance
of the track will be increased on this curve. In order to avoid resistance
beyond the allowable limits, the gradients are reduced on curves & this
reduction in gradient is known as grade compensation for curves.

In India, Compensation for curvature is given by.

1. BG track: 0.04% per degree of curve

2. MG track: 0.03 % per degree of curve

3. NG track: 0.02 % per degree of curve

Example :If the ruling gradient is 1 in 250 on a particular section
of B.G & at the same time a curve of 4 degree is situated on this
ruling gradient, what should be the allowable ruling gradient?
Solution:
As per Indian railway recommendation, the grade compensation for of B.G track is
0.04%per degree of curve.
Therefore, Grade compensation for 4 degree curve
= 0.04 X 4 = 0.16%
Ruling gradients is 1 in 250
= 1/250 X100 = 0.4%
Therefore, Required ruling gradient or Actual gradient
= Ruling gradient – grade compensation
= 0.4- 0.16
= 0.24% or 1 in 417
 Radius & Degree of a curve
• The main curved portion of a railway track is kept circular i.e, the radius at every point of the curve
is same.
• The radius of a railway curve is sometimes represented by the degree of the curve.
Degree of a railway curve:-
The angle subtended at the center of the curve by an arc of 30.0m length is defined as a defined as a
degree of the curve.
Relationship between the radius & degree of a curve.
Let, R=radius of the curve in meters, D = degree of the curve
Now, total circumference 2πR makes 30.0 m
360 degree at the center. A B
Therefore, for 30.0 m arc makes an angle. 𝜃 
D/30 = 360/2πR

D = 360 X 30/2πR

D = 1718.87/R

D = 1720/R
 Speed Of The Train
• The
  speed of the train depends upon the strength of the track and the
power of the locomotive.
• The use of diesel traction and electric traction, which can run the train
at higher speeds, also requires the strengthening of the existing tracks.
• The high speed train ( trains have to face the following dynamics
effects in their operation.
• In India, maximum speeds achieved by steam locomotives are as
follows:
i. For Broad Gauge = 96 km.p.h
ii. For Meter Gauge = 72 km.p.h
iii. For Narrow Gauge = 40 km.p.h
 Safe speed on curves
•   speed for all practical purposes means a speed which is safe
Safe
from the danger of overturning & derailment with a certain margin
of safety. This speed, to negotiate curves safely, depends upon the
following factors.
• The gauge of track.
• The radius of the curve.
• Amount of super elevation provided.
In India, using safe speed V in kmph, formula.
i. B.G & M.G : V = 4.35
ii. N.G: V = 3.65
Subject to a maximum of 50 km.p.h
 Radius or Degree of the Curve
•Curve
  on the railways are generally circular i.e., each curve
should have the same radius on every portion of it.
D=
Where ‘R’ is radius of curve in meters. So for curve
R = 1720 m and for curve R = 860 m

In India, curve on through tracks, are limited to the following

maximum radii:
i. Maximum degree of curvature for B.G = (Minimum R = 175 m)
ii. Maximum degree of curvature for M.G = (Minimum R = 109 m)
iii. Maximum degree of curvature for N.G = (Minimum R = 44 m)
 Superelevation or Cant
When a train moves round a curve, it is subjected to a
centrifugal force acting horizontally at the centre of gravity of each
vehicle radially away from the centre of the curve. This increases the
weight on the outer rails.
To counteract the effect of centrifugal forces, the level of the outer
rail is raised above the inner rail by a certain amount to introduce
the centripetal force. This raised elevation of outer rail
above the inner rail at a horizontal curve is called “Cant”.
 Superelevation or Cant
• It is the difference in elevation (or height) between the outer
rail and inner rail at a horizontal curve is called “Cant”.
• Inner rail is taken as a reference rail & is maintained at its
original level.
• Inner rail is also known as ‘gradient rail’.
• It is denoted by “e”.
 Objectives of Superelevation.
• To neutralize the effect of centrifugal force.
• Equal distribution of wheel loads.
• Providing smooth track, improving passenger comfort.
• To reduce wear & tear of the rails & rolling stock.
 Derivation

•Relationship
  of Superelevation (e), with gauge (G), speed (V), and radius of
the curve (R).

U s i n g t h e fo l l o wi n g n o t a t i o n s : -
W = Weight of moving vehicle in kg.
v = Speed of vehicle in m/sec
V = Speed of vehicle in km.p.h
R = Radius of curve in meters.
G = Gauge of track in meters.
g = Acceleration due to gravity in m/
α = Angle of inclination.
S = Length of inclined surface in meters.
 S
F
e

α W

F cos α

W sin α

W cos α
W
F sin α
 Centrifugal force is given by the following expression
F = ……. (1)
Now resolving the forces along the inclined surface we get
F = W ……. (2)
Where:.. F = , =
and =
There for equation (2) becomes
X =W X
Therefor, e = X G meters ……. (3)
•Where,
  v is in m/sec
= m. where, V is in km. p.h
= m;………… (4)
= cm ;………… (5)
Where G is in meters.
V is in km. p .h
R is in meters.
In India , G for B.G = 1.676m; M.G = 1.0 m; N.G = 0.762m
•So…….,
 
For B.G., E = = 1.315 cm ……… (5a)
For M.G., E = = 0.80 cm …………. (5b)
For N.G., E = = 0.60 cm ……..… (5c)
The cant or Superelevation obtained from equation (4) or (5) is known as
Equilibrium cant.
Note: When the lateral forces and wheel loads are almost equal, the cant is
said to be in equilibrium. This equilibrium cant is provided on the basis of
average speed of the trains.
 Equilibrium Cant
The cant or super elevation as given by equation
e = ( G V 2 / 1 . 2 7 R ) cm, the load carried by both the wheels will be
the same, the springs will be equally compressed & the
passengers will not tend to lean in either direction, such cant is
known as the “Equilibrium cant”.
 Equilibrium Cant
• The
  cant is provided on the basis of average speed of the trains.
• The majority of Indian Railways provide super elevation for
equilibrium speed or average speed under condition of level track.
Average speed or Weighted average speed

Equilibrium speed =

= Known as ‘Weighted Average’

Where, , = Number of trains
, , = Speed of trains in kmph
 Cant Deficiency (Cd)
 The equilibrium cant is provided on the basis of equilibrium speed (or Average speed)
of different trains. But this equilibrium cant or superelevation falls short of that
required for the high speed trains. This shortage of cant is called “ Cant Deficiency”.
 In other words, it is the difference between the equilibrium cant necessary for the
maximum permissible speed on a curve and the actual cant provided. Higher cant
deficiency causes more unbalanced centrifugal force and discomfort to the
passengers
 Maximum value of cant deficiency prescribed for Indian Railways.

B.G = 7.6cm, M.G = 5.1cm, N.G = 3.8cm

 Negative Superelevation
• When a branch line diverges from a main line on a curve of
contrary flexure, the super elevation necessary for the average
speed of trains running over the main line, cannot be provided.
• The speed of the trains over the diverging track and main line
track has to be reduced considerably.
• The reason for the reduction of speed is that, on the branch line
track, the inner rail remains at higher level than the outer rail.
 Outer Rail
Outer Rail C
Superelevation F
E Y
X
Inner Rail

Bra
D

nch
Inner S. E.

k
rac
Tra
X Y Rail

in T
ck

Ma
Crossing

A B
Points