CAD/CAM

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
JNTUH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
MANTHANI

CAD/CAM MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

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Geometric Modeling

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 Introduction
• Geometric modeling is the field that discusses the mathematical
methods behind the modeling of realistic objects for computer graphics
and computer aided design

• Geometric modeling is as important to CAD as governing

equilibrium equations to classical engineering fields as mechanics and
thermal fluids

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The Role of Geometric Modeling in a
CAD System

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Classification

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 General Requirements
• Complete part representation including topological
and geometrical data
• – Geometry: shape and dimensions
• – Topology: the connectivity and associativity of the object entities; it
determines the relational information between object entities
• Able to transfer data directly from CAD to CAE and CAM.
• Support various engineering applications, such as
mass properties, mechanism analysis, FEA/FEM and
tool path creation for CNC, and so on

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 Topology and Geometry
• The topology of the object can be stated as
- L1 shares a vertex (point) with L2 & C1
- L2 shares a vertex with L1 & L3
- L3 shares a vertex with L2 & C1
- L1 & L3 donot overlap
- ‘P’ lies outside the object
• The geometry that defines the object is the
- the length of lines L1, L2, L3
- the angle between the lines
- radius ‘R’ & the centre ‘P’ of semi-circle

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 2-D MODEL
• Utility of 2-D model lies in many of the low end drafting packages which is
required for preparing manufacturing drawings

• Their utility is limited because of their inherent difficulty in representing

complex objects

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 3-D MODEL
• The 3-D geometric modeling has the ability to provide all the information
required for CAD-CAM-CAE applications
• A 3-D geometric model should be an unambiguous representation of an
object
• A 3-D model should be complete to all engineering function from
documentation
(drafting & shading) to engineering analysis to manufacturing

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 Wireframe Modeling
• In this method the complete object is represented by number of lines,
points, arcs & curves and their connectivity relationships

Advantages
• The construction of a wireframe model is simple
• It does not require much computer time & memory.
• It can be used for simple NC tool path generation
Disadvantages
• It can not be used for calculation of mass, inertia properties
• The interpretation of wireframe models having many edges is very
difficult

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Examples for Wireframe modeling

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 Surface Modeling
• The surface model is constructed essentially from surfaces such a s planes,
rotated curved surfaces & even very complex synthetic surfaces.
• Surface creation on existing CAD system usually requires wireframe entities as a
start
• Surface & wireframe form the core of all existing CAD system
Advantages
• Surface model of an object is a relatively more complete & less ambiguous
representation than its wireframe model
• This method is very much useful for specific non-analytical surfaces ( free-form
surface/sculptured surfaces) such as those used for modeling automobile &
airplane bodies & turbine blades etc.
• From an application point of view, surface models can be utilized in Finite Element
Modeling, NC tool path generation, sectioning & interference detections.
Disadvantages
• The calculation of mass & inertia properties would be difficult
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Examples for Surface modeling

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Surface models define only the geometry, no topology.
Shading is possible

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 Solid Modeling
• Solid model of an object is a more complete representation than surface
model, as all the information required for engineering analysis &
manufacturing can be obtained with this technique.

Advantages
• Solid modeling produces accurate design,
• provides complete 3D definition
• Improves the quality of design
• Improves visualization
• Has potential for functional simulation of the system

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 Why Solid Modeling ?
Using volume information
– weight or volume calculation, centroids, moments of
inertia calculation,
– stress analysis (finite elements analysis), heat
conduction calculations, dynamic analysis,
– system dynamics analysis

Using volume and boundary information

– generation of CNC codes, and robotic and assembly
simulation

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Wireframe Vs Surface Vs Solid Model

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Wireframe Modeling Entities

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 Analytic curve
• are defined as those that can be described by analytic equations such as
lines, circle, conics etc.
• provide very compact forms to represent shapes & simplify the
computation of related properties such as areas & volume.
• Analytic curves are usually not sufficient to meet today’s geometric design
requirements of complex mechanical parts like automobile bodies,
aeroplane wings, propeller blades, bottles etc.
• That require synthetic curves & surfaces (free-form surfaces)

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 Synthetic curve
• are defined as those that can be described by a set of data points (i.e.
control points) such as Splines, Bezier curve etc.
• Synthetic curves provide designers with greater flexibility & control of a
curve shape
by changing the positions of the one or more data points or control points.

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 Synthetic curve construction techniques

• Interpolation technique ---->Curve passes through the data points

• Approximation technique ---->Curve do not passes through the data

points

• Mathematically, synthetic curves represent a Curve-fitting problem to

construct a smooth curve

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 Synthetic curve construction techniques
• Interpolation technique ---->Curve resulting from this technique
pass through the given data points; curve itself is called Interpolant

• Approximation technique ---->Produce curves that do not pass

through the given data points. Instead, these points are used to control the
shape of the resulting curves

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 Mathematical representation of curves
• Curve can be described mathematically by
• Parametric equation
Explicit form
• Non-parametric equation
Implicit form

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 Non-Parametric equation
• If the co-ordinates ‘y’ & ‘z’ of a point on the curve are expressed as two
separate functions of the third coordinate ‘x’ <independent variable>. This
curve representation is known as Non-parametric (Explicit form)
• Position vector of a point ‘P’ on the curve P = [x y z]T= [x f(x) g(x) ]T
• If the co-ordinates ‘x’, ‘y’ & ‘z’ are related together by two functions, a
non-parametric implicit form results
• f1 (x,y,z) = 0
• f2 (x,y,z) = 0

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 Parametric equation
• In parametric form, each point on a curve is expressed as a function of a
parameter “u”. This parameter acts as a local co-ordinate for points on the
curve
• Position vector of a point ‘P’ on the curve = P(u) = [x(u) y(u) z(u) ]T
• The parametric curve is bounded by two parametric variable values umin
and umax.

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 Advantages of Parametric curves

• In case of commonly used curves (such as circle, conics), these equations

are polynomials rather than equations involving roots. Hence, the
parametric form is not only more general but it is also well suited to
computation in geometric modeling
• Parametric geometry can be easily expressed in terms of vectors &
matrices which enables the use of simple computation techniques to solve
complex analytic geometry problem
• To check whether a given point lies on the curve or not, reduces to finding
the corresponding ‘u’ values & checking whether that value lies in the
stated ‘u’ range.
• Blending is used to construct composite curve. Blending of two curves
implies the joining of two curves subjected to the satisfaction of continuity
condition.
• Various Continuity requirements can be specified at data points to impose
various degrees of smoothness of the resulting curve.
• The order of continuity becomes important when a complex curve is
modeled by several curve segments pieced together end-to-end
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 Synthetic Curves
Cubic Splines:
• Splines are used to interpolate to given data i.e. based on Interpolation
technique.
• A spline is a piecewise parametric representation of the geometry of a
curve with a specified order of continuity.
• Cubic splines use a parametric equations of 3rd degree with the first order
continuity maintained at the intersection point of the curve.
• Name from the traditional drafting tool called “Splines” or “French
Curves”

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• Cubic splines use cubic polynomial
• The parametric equation of a cubic spline segment is given by

Cubic polynomial has four coefficients & thus requires four conditions to
evaluate

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 Cubic Spline
 Parametric spline curves are defined as
piecewise polynomial curves with a
certain order of continuity.

 Parametric cubic splines are used to

interpolate to given data.

 Cubic spline is determined by defining positions and tangent

vectors at the data points.

 The parametric cubic spline connects two data points and utilizes
a cubic function.

 Therefore four conditions (positions of the two end points and two
tangent vectors at the points) are required to determine the
coefficients of the equation.
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  Parametric equation of cubic spline is given by

 Where u is the parameter and Ci is the polynomial coefficients

 Expanded vector form of above equations is

 In scalar form it can written as for x, y and z components

 Matrix form it can be written as

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 The tangent vector to the curve at any point is given by
differentiating the equation with respect to ‘u’ to give

 Inorder to find the coefficients Ci, consider the cubic spline curve
with two endpoints P0 and P1.
 Applying the boundary conditions

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 Solving these four equations simultaneously for the coefficients gives

 Substituting in the below equation and rearranging gives

are called geometric coefficients.

Tangent Vector becomes

The function of u called blending functions

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 Equation can be written in a matrix form as

 Where is the Hermite matrix and V is the geometry vector.

 The curve’s shape can be controlled by changing its endpoints or its

tangent vectors.

 If the two end points are fixed in space, the designer can control the
shape of the spline by changing either the magnitudes or the direction
of the tangent vectors.
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 The use of the cubic splines in design applications is not popular
compared to Bezier or B-spline curves.

 The control of the curve is not very obvious from the input data due
to its global control characteristics.

 The order of the curve is always constant (cubic).

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 Bezier Curves
• Based on approximation techniques.
• Developed by P. Bezier, Designer of French car firm Regie Renault
(1962).
• Used in his Software system to define the outer panels of several Renault
cars (1899)
• Bezier curve uses the vertices of Bezier Characteristic polygon as control
points for approximating the generated curve. The curve will pass through
the first & last point with all other points acting as control points. The
curve is also always tangent to the first & last polygon segment

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• The degree of Bezier curve is related to the number of data points;(n+1)
points define an nth degree Bezier curve.
• If no. of data points is 4 [n+1=4], Then n=3 i.e degree of curve =3 (cubic)
• This is widely used for the design of aesthetic surfaces. The flexibility of
the curve becomes more with more control points

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Examples for Bezier curves

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Major difference between the Bezier Curve &
Cubic Spline Curve

Bezier Curve Cubic Spline

The degree of Bezier curve is variable & The degree of cubic spline is always 3 for a
is related to the number of data points

The shape of Bezier curve is controlled First derivatives are not used in the curve
by its data points only. development

The Bezier curve is smoother than the It is of lower order derivative

cubic spline

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 B-Spline Curves
• Single piecewise parametric polynomial curve through any number of
control points with the degree of polynomial selected by Designer
• It provides the ability to add control points without increasing the degree
of the curve
• B-spline exhibit a local control of the curve shape i.e. whenever a single
vertex is moved, only those vertices around that will be affected while rest
remains the same
• Four control points can always produce a cubic Bezier curve but four
control points can produce linear, quadratic or cubic B-spline curve

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 B – Spline Curve
 B-splines are a powerful tool for generating curves with many
control points and provide many advantages over Bezier curves.

 A long, complicated curve can be specified as a single B-spline.

 A curve designer has much flexibility in adjusting the curvature of

a B-spline curve.

 B-splines can be designed with sharp bends and even corners.

 B-spline curves can interpolate or approximate a set of given data

points.

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 B – Spline Curve
Similar to Bezier curves, the B-spline curve defined by n+1 control points
Pi is given by

Properties of B-spline functions

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 The Characteristics of B- Spline Curve
 The local control of the curve can be achieved by changing the
position of a control points, using multiple control points by placing
several points at the same location, or by choosing a different degree.

 B-spline curve passes through the first and last control points P0 and
Pn+1 and is tangent to the first and last segments of the control
polygon.

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 The Effect of Degree of B- Spline Curve on its shape

 Increasing the degree of the curve tightens it. In general, the less the
degree, the closer the curve gets to the control points.

 When k=1, a zero degree curve results. The curve then becomes the
control points themselves.

 When k=2, the curve becomes the polygon segments themselves.

 A second degree curve is always tangent to the midpoints of all the

internal polygon segments. This not in the case for other degrees.

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 Identical B-spline and Bezier Curves

 If k equals the number

of control points, then
the resulting B-spline
curve becomes a Bezier
curve.

 Multiple control points

induce regions of high
curvature of a B-spline
curve. This is useful
when creating sharp
corners in the curve.

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 Multiple Control point B-Spline curve

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 An Closed B-spline curve with P0 and P5 coincident

 In representing closed curves, closed polygons are used where the

first and last control points are connected by a polygon segment.

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REFERENCE TEXT BOOKS OF:

principles and applications of PN RAO

Theory and practice by IBRAHIM ZED

Computer aided Design and Manufacturing by GROOVER

Study material NPTEL

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THANK YOU

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