GLT 101 Geology I

• Instructor – Khaled Hasan

• Associate Professor of Geology
• BSc and MSc – Geology DU
• PhD – Texas A&M University
• Email – [email protected]
• Office – 2nd Floor Geology Department
 Course Outline-my Part
• MINERALOGY

Definition
History
Importance
Crystal Structure
Chemistry
Physical Properties
Miscellaneous properties
Mineral Classification
 Reference
• Mineralogy; Concepts, Descriptions,
Determinations, Authors L G Berry,
Brian Mason and R V Dietrich, 2nd
edition, CBS Publishers and
Distributors, New Delhi.
• ISBN 81-239-1148-3
• Call No: 549 BEM
 Early Uses of Minerals
• Survival in the Wild
– First Weapons
– Building a Fire
– Basic Equipments
• Aesthetics
– Cave Paintings
– Ornaments
Pre-Historic Weapons
Pre-Historic Tools
Pre-Historic Cave paintings
Pre-Historic Ornaments
 History
• Aristotle
• Pliny the Elder
• Georgius Agricola
• Nicholas Steno
• Robert Boyle – First used the term
Mineralogy in 1690 in print
• John Dalton’s Atomic Theory – 1805
• William Nicol – developed the polarizer
microscope in 1809, optical properties
• W. H. and W. L. Bragg published results of X-
ray studies of some minerals around 1915
 Definitions
• Historic – Any material that is neither animal
nor Vegetable
• Legal – Something valuable that can be
extracted from the Earth is subject to
Depletion
• Scientific – A naturally occurring solid,
generally formed by inorganic processes,
with an ordered internal arrangement of
atoms, and a chemical composition and
physical properties that either are fixed or
that vary within definite range
 Definitions
• Naturally Occurring – can’t be synthetic
• Solid – Ice is mineral, water is not
• Inorganic – some confusion here, Solid
hydrocarbons are called minerals,
Aragonite from shells also
• Minerals are crystalline solids, Opals
become crystal in time and in some
minerals the crystalline structure is
destroyed
• Slight variations can occur in chemistry
and therefore the physical properties
 Importance of Minerals
• Economical – used in industry, Ore
minerals (metallic elements), Ore
deposits, industrial minerals (non-
metallic)
• Scientific – How they were formed,
where they can be found, how they can
be synthesized, tells us about the
Earth’s history
• Aesthetic –shiny and colorful gems
• Non renewable and occurs randomly??
 Ore and Ore Deposits
• Ores are minerals from which valuable
metallic elements can be extracted
• Main confusion is whether it is
economic or not
• Generally if the quantity of the ore is
enough to guarantee a profit after
extraction it is called an Ore Deposit
• The term Ore Minerals does not imply
economic viability
• Gangue Minerals are associated with
ores
 Distribution of Minerals and
Elements in the Crust
• Assignment for you
– Make one table with name of Minerals and
their percentage in the earth’s Crust
– Make one table with name of Elements and
their percentage in the earth’s Crust
 Crystals
• Crystal is a solid body bounded by
natural planar surfaces called crystal
faces, that are the external expressions
of a regular internal arrangements of
the constituent atoms/ions.
• Crystalline materials have regular
internal arrangements of atoms/ions
that may or may not be bounded by
crystal faces. This is more common in
Minerals
 Crystals
• Natural crystals grows wherever
– Their constituent elements (atoms/ions) are free
to come together in the correct proportions
– Existing conditions allows growth at a reasonably
slow and steady rate
– There is free space where they can grow without
physical constraint
• Therefore we get good crystals along the
walls of fractures, cavities and vesicles
• Mostly they form from hot aqueous magmas
in hydrothermal veins, from gaseous fluids
or in cavities as late stage crystallization
 Crystals
• Crystal Lattice is 3-dimensional structure in
which positions are occupied by the
atoms/ions (Motifs).
• The unit cell is the fundamental building
block that forms the crystal structure by
regular repetition of itself in space
• Auguste Bravais (1817-1863) showed that
only 14 types of regular pattern or space
lattices can result from arranging identical
points in space such that the any point is
repeated at regular interval
Crystal Lattices
 Crystals

• Euhedral – The grain is bounded in all

sides by its crystal faces, a perfect
crystal
• Anhedral – The grain exhibits none of
its own possible crystal faces
• Subhedral – The grain has some but
not all of its possible crystal faces. In
between Euhedral and Anhedral
 Bonding in Atoms/Crystals
• Metallic Bond – The strongest of the bonds
where the element loses its outer electron
easily. Native metals have this type of
bonding
• Covalent Bond – most stable bonds where
the outer electron is shared between similar
atoms as in the inert gases. Non reactive.
• Ionic Bond – Stability is reached by losing or
gaining electron from another element (Na
and Cl)
• Van Der Waals Bond – A weak bonding force
that exists within atoms due to electrical
imbalance
 Ionic

Atomic Bonding

Covalent Metallic
 Crystal Systems
• Based on the direction of the Axes, 7
Systems and 32 classes
– Triclinic
– Monoclinic
– Orthorhombic
– Trigonal
– Hexagonal
– Tetragonal
– Isometric
 Millers Indices of Crystal faces

CUBIC OCTAHEDRON
http://www.rockhounds.com/rockshop/xtal/part1.html
 Crystal Structure Directly
Influences:
• Specific Gravity/Density
• Hardness
• Fracture/Cleavage
• Optical Properties
• Thermal and Electromagnetic
properties
 Van Der Waals aka London Force
• A weak physical force that holds together two molecules or two
different parts of the same molecule , The weakest of the intermolecular
forces. Present on all particles and increasing strength with increasing
size.  Results from the fact that a preponderance of electrons can end
up on one side of an atom. The dispersion force which in fact is an
induced dipole - induced dipole interaction depends on the
polarisability of the interacting molecules and is inversely proportional
to the sixth power of separation. In the case of e.g. two CH4 molecules
at a separation of 3Å, the dispersion interaction energy is of the order
of -1.1 Kcal/mole. an attractive force between two atoms due to a
fluctuating dipole moment in one molecule inducing a dipole moment in
the other molecule which then interact
• In chemistry, the term Van der Waals force originally referred to all
forms of intermolecular forces; however, in modern usage it tends to
refer only to London forces: those forces which arise from induced
rather than permanent dipoles. The forces are named after Johannes
Diderik van der Waals.
• A weak attractive force between atoms or nonpolar molecules caused
by a temporary change in dipole moment arising from a brief shift of
orbital electrons to one side of one atom or molecule, creating a similar
shift in adjacent atoms or molecules. A weak attractive force between
atoms or nonpolar molecules caused by a temporary change in dipole
moment arising from a brief shift of orbital electrons to one side of one
atom or molecule, creating a similar shift in adjacent atoms or
molecules.
The most common minerals
• Feldspars – 51%
– Plagioclasse Feldspars – 39%
– Alkali Feldspars – 12%
• Quartz – 12%
• Pyroxenes – 11%
• Amphiboles – 5%
• Micas – 5%
• Other Clay Minerals – 5%
• Other Silicates – 3%
• Non-Silicates – 8%
 Physical Properties of Minerals
• Form-shape, crystalline, amorphous
• Specific Gravity/Density
• Optical Properties
– Reflection
– Refraction & Double refraction (Birefringence)
– Luster & Diaphaneity
• Color & Streak
• Cleavage, Fracture, Parting
• Hardness
• Others – Taste, Magnetism, Effervescence,
Fluorescence
• http://www.cobweb.net/~bug2/rock4.htm
• http://webmineral.com/
• http://www.galleries.com/minerals/physical.htm
 Specific Gravity and Density
• Ratio of Density of the Mineral to the density of
Water
• Depends on Chemical Composition (heavier
atoms) and the Crystal Structure (stronger
bonding/closer packing)
• Some variation may occur based on
Temperature and Pressure conditions but
otherwise this is a constant number which can
be diagnostic for minerals with fixed
composition like Quartz.
• Olivine Group (Mg, Fe)2 SiO4 (Forsterite-Fayalite)
lower Sp. Gr. With Mg
 Optical Properties
• Some are Macroscopic and some are studied
under a Microscope
• Reflection, Refraction, Diaphaneity, Luster,
Color, Streak, Luminescence etc are all
related to the Macroscopic optical properties
• Reflection – Law of Reflection?
• Refraction – Snell’s law?
• Index of Refraction (n) ?
• Refraction is also the ratio (V/v) between the
velocity of light in air (V) to the velocity in a
material (v)
 Optical Properties - Refraction
• Just like Density/Sp. Gr. Refraction is also
dependent on Chemical Composition and
Crystal Structure
• In Isometric and non-crystalline materials the
velocity of light is the same in all direction.
These are called optically Isotropic materials
• In other minerals called Anisotropic, the light
breaks up into two rays having different
velocity thus having n. The difference
between the two n values are called
Birefringence. In Quartz this is small (0.009).
In Calcite it is quite large (0.172) and
produces Double Refraction
Double Refraction in Calcite
 Optical Properties - Luster
• Appearance of a mineral in reflected light
or how much light is reflected from the
mineral surface.
• Surface condition Rough or Smooth and
the Refractive Index influences Luster
• Three types – Metallic, Sub-Metallic and
Non-Metallic. Several types of Non-Metallic
• Generally greater n means higher Luster;
Metallic – n > 3, Sub-Metallic – n = 2.6-3,
Non-Metallic – n < 2.6
 Optical Properties - Luster

• Non-Metallic Luster has many varieties.

These are:
– Adamantine; n = 1.9 – 2.6
– Vitreous; n = 1.3 – 1.9
– Greasy, Waxy, Silky, Pearly, Dull, Earthy
are varieties with n < 1.3
 Optical Properties - Diaphaneity
• The property of light passing
through a mineral is known as
Diaphaneity. There are three
ways minerals can allow the
transmission of light. These are;
– Transparent
– Translucent
– Opaque
 Color and Streak
• Absorption and reflection of certain  causes
the material to appear in certain color
• Nassau (1978) states that “specific causes
for color in majority of minerals are in fact
not known.”
• The causes of color all involves electronic
processes, energies of which corresponds to
the  of the light. External stimulation such
as impinging light changes the distribution of
energy and electrons within the atoms/ions.
 Color
• Color in Minerals can be of two types, both
influenced by Chemical Composition
– Idiochromatic – Constant color. The color is
inherent for these minerals. The ions/ groups of
ions that absorbs the  is essential to the
composition of the mineral
– Allochromatic (Exotic) – Varying color. The color
absorbing ions/groups of ions do or do not occur
in these minerals
– Pseudochromatic – Color caused in minerals by
physical effects (inclusions/defects). These are
not the true color of that mineral
 Color varies based on
Ions/ionic groups

Muscovite

Biotite
Color varies
Based on
Inclusions
 Streak
• Streak is the color of the fine powder of a
mineral. It is often more distinctive for the
mineral than the color of the whole mineral.
Streak reflects the inherent color as
opposed to the exotic color.
 Cleavage, Fracture and Parting
• These are terms that describing the
ways how a Mineral can break
– Cleavage = When a Mineral breaks along
their Crystallographic planes. In this case
the internal structure and the nature of
bonding is the most important factor
– Parting = Mineral breaks along planes that
are not directly controlled by
Crystallographic planes
– Fracture = When the Mineral breaks in
irregular pattern not along any planes
 Cleavage
• As this property is directly controlled
by the Crystal structure this is the most
diagnostic way of breaking.
• The mineral always breaks parallel to
the crystal face or possible face
• There is direct relationship between
Bonding strength and Cleavage
• Weak Van Der Waal’s force or bonds
usually results in good Cleavage
• Metallic bonds are strong and usually
do not cleave
 Cleavage
• Covalent bonds are of intermediate
strength and may or may not form
cleavage
• Most minerals with Ionic bonds tends
to have one or more good cleavage
• Cleavage can be described as Perfect,
Good, Distinct, and Indistinct;
depending on how well it breaks
• Perfect cleavage results in lustrous
surface and Indistinct cleavage is hard
to distinguish from Fracture
 Cleavage

Muscovite: 1 Direction Halite: 3 Direction at 90

Pyroxene: 2 Direction near 90 Calcite: 3 Direction not at 90

 Cleavage

Fluorite: 4 direction
 Parting
• Also known as False Cleavage
• Caused by
– Twin Planes
– Deformation in Crystals
– Inclusions
– Exsolution Lamellae
• Twin Crystals are composite crystals
made up of more than two or more
crystals where individual crystals are
related to each other in a definite
crystallographic manner
 Fracture
• When a minerals breaks in irregular
surfaces without any relationship to the
crystallographic planes, i.e., no
consistent pattern
• Generally occurs in minerals with similar
bonding strength in all directions
• Types of Fracture
– Conchoidal = Smooth and curving
– Even = more or less Flat
– Hackly = rough, jagged or sharp-edged
– Splintery or Fibrous = like split wood
– Uneven or Irregular = Rough
Fracture
Hackly

Conchoidal

Splintery
 Hardness
• Generally described as resistance to
scratching. It gives an indication of the
internal cohesiveness of the mineral.
• Relative hardness is a good diagnostic
property
• Hardness is
– Greater in minerals with smaller atoms
– Greater in minerals containing higher
valency Cations
– Varies directly with packing density
– Varies indirectly with Cation-Anion
separation
 Hardness
• Mohs scale of relative Hardness was
developed by Friedrich Mohs in 1824.
• There are ten minerals occupying ten
position in this scale These are Talc,
Gypsum, Calcite, Fluorite, Apatite, Feldspar,
Quartz, Topaz, Corundum and Diamond. The
intervals in this scale is not uniform.
• Hardness somewhat varies when measured
along different crystal direction. A mineral is
generally softer along the cleavage surface
• Common Hardness tools such as Fingernail
(2.5), broken glass/knife blades (5.5), copper
penny (3), metal file (6.5) are also useful
 Special Properties
• Magnetism
• Electrical
• Taste
• Odour
• Reaction with Acid
• Double Refraction
• Feel, etc
 Chemistry of Minerals
• Isostructure - Two Minerals having same crystal
structure but different Chemical Composition; Halite,
Galena, Pyrite
• Isotypic – Closely related crystal structure; Halite,
Calcite
• Isomorphism – Similar crystal structure (Cleavage
and interfacial angles are similar); and analogous
chemical formula: Spinel group
• Polymorphism – Same Chemistry, different Crystal
structure and Physical properties caused by forming
under different pressure, temperature and chemical
environment ; Diamond and Graphite
• Pseudomorphism – A mineral is replaced by another
without changing the external form; Calcite and
Aragonite, Quartz and Fluorite, Copper and Cuprite,
Gypsum and Anhydride
 Chemistry of Minerals
• Atomic Substitution or Solid Solution –
Substitution of an element in a mineral by
another. It occurs at ionic form where the
replacement process do not cause any
serious distortion of the structure. Olivine
• It means that it is a solid with homogenous
crystal structure where the same position
can be occupied by different ions.
• Other replacement can also occur to balance
the initial change as in Plagioclasse
Feldspars (when Ca replaces Na, Al replaces
Si)
 Bowen’s Reaction Series
• Bowen determined that specific minerals
form at specific temperatures as a magma
cools.
• At the higher temperatures associated with
magmas, the general progression can be
separated into two branches.
• The continuous branch describes the
evolution of the plagioclase feldspars as they
evolve from being calcium-rich to more
sodium rich.
• The discontinuous branch describes the
formation of the mafic minerals olivine,
pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite mica.
 Bowen’s Reaction Series
• At a certain temperature a magma might
produce olivine, but if that same magma was
allowed to cool further, the olivine would
"react" with the residual magma, and change
to the next mineral on the series (in this case
pyroxene). Continue cooling and the
pyroxene would convert to amphibole, and
then to biotite.
• The mineral formed adjusts the internal
crystalline lattice to achieve stability at
different temperatures. Really no big deal
• At lower temperatures, the branches merge
and we obtain the minerals common to the
felsic rocks - orthoclase feldspar, muscovite
mica, and quartz
Bowen’s Reaction Series
The Goldich Stability Series
 Classification of Minerals
• Based on nature of Anionic Group
– Native metals
– Sulfides and Sulfosalts
– Oxides and Hydroxides
– Halides
– Carbonates, Nitrates, Borates and Iodates
– Sulfates, Chromates, Molybdates,
Tungstates
– Phosphates, Arsenates, Vanadates
– Silicates
 Subdivisions of the Silicates
• Nesosilicates – Independent Tetrahedra- Olivine,
Garnet, Kyanite, Topaz
• Sorosilicates – 2 Tetrahedra sharing 1 Oxygen –
Hemimorphite, Epidote
• Cyclosilicates – Closed ring of Tetrahedra each
sharing 2 Oxygen – Beryl, Tourmaline
• Inosilicates –
– Single chain each Tetrahedra sharing 2 Oxygen –
Pyroxenes (Diopside, Hypersthene)
– Double chain alternate Tetrahedra sharing 2 and 3 Oxygen –
Amphiboles (Hornblende, Actinolite)
• Phyllosilicates – Continuous sheets of Tetrahedra
each sharing 3 Oxygen – Mica Group, Clay Minerals
• Tektosilicates – 3-D network Each Tetrahedra
sharing all 4 Oxygen – Quartz, Feldspars
 Zaherite
• Zaherite is a
mineral, a complex
sulphate of
aluminum,
Discovered in 1977
in the Salt range,
Punjab, Pakistan by
Mohamed Abduz
Zaher of the
Bangladesh
Geological Survey
after whom it is
named.
 Uses of Minerals
Think,…..Think,……Think
 Galena

Copper
Gold

Talc

Hematite