Introduction to Instrumentation Engineering

Chapter 3: Sensors and Transducers

By Sintayehu Challa

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Goals of the Chapter
 Define classification of sensors and some terminologies
 Introduce various types of sensors for measurement
purpose and their applications
 Example: Displacement, motion, level, pressure, temperature, …

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 2

Overview
 Introduction
 Classification of sensors
 Passive sensors
 Active sensors

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 3

 Introduction

Signal Signal
Sensing conversion/ Output
conditioning
element processing presentation
element
element
Non-electrical Electrical
quantity signal

 Sensors
 Elements which generate variation of electrical quantities (EQ) in
response to variation of non-electrical quantities (NEQ)
 Examples of NEQ
 Temperature, displacement, humidity, fluid flow, speed, pressure,…

 Sensor are sometimes called transducers

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 4

Introduction …
 Advantages of using sensors include
1. Mechanical effects such as friction is reduced to the minimum
possibility
2. Very small power is required for controlling the electrical system
3. The electrical output can be amplified to any desired level
4. The electrical output can be detected and recorded remotely at a
distance from the sensing medium and use modern digital
computers
5. etc …

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 5

Introduction - Use of Sensors
1. Information gathering: Provide data for display purpose
 This gives an understanding of the current status of the system
parameters
 Example: Car speed sensor and speedometer, which records the
speed of a car against time

2. System control: Signal from the sensor is an input to a

controller

System
Controller under
Desires signal control Output signal

Sensor

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 6

Introduction – Sensor Requirements
 The main function of a sensor is to respond only for the
measurement under specified limits for which it is designed
 Sensors should meet the following basic requirements
1. Ruggedness: Capable of withstanding overload
 Some safety arrangements should be provided for overload protection
2. Linearity: Its input-output characteristics must be linear
3. Repeatability: It should reproduce the same output signal when the
same input is applied again and again
4. High output signal quality
5. High reliability and stability
6. Good dynamic response
7. No hysteresis, …

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 7

Overview
 Introduction
 Classification of sensors
 Passive sensors
 Active sensors

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 8

Classification of Sensors
 Sensors can be divided on the basis of
 Method of applications
 Method of energy conversion used
 Nature of output signals
 Electrical principle

 In general, the classification of sensors is given by

 Primary and secondary sensors
 Active and passive sensors
 Analog and Digital sensors

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 9

Primary and Secondary Sensors
 Classification is based on the method of application
 Primary sensor
 The input NEQ is directly sensed by the sensor
 The physical phenomenon is converted into another NEQ

 Secondary sensor
 The output of the primary sensor is fed to another (secondary)
sensor that converts the NEQ to EQ

NEQ NEQ EQ
Load Strain-
cell gauge
Primary Secondary
sensor sensor
Weight Displacement Resistance
(Force F) d R

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 10

Active and Passive Sensor
 Classification based on the basis of energy conversion
 Active sensor
 Generates voltage/current in response to NEQ variation
 Are also called self-generating sensors
 Normally, the output of active sensors is in V or mV
 Examples
 Thermocouples: A change in temperature produces output voltage
 Photovoltaic cell: Change solar energy into voltage
 Hall-effect sensors, …

NEQ EQ
Active
Ex. Temperature sensors Voltage or current

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 11

Active and Passive ….
 Passive sensors
 Sensors that does not generate voltage or current, but produce element variation in R,
L, or C
 Need an additional circuit to produce voltage or current variation
 Examples
 Thermistor: Change in temperature leads to change in resistance
 Photo resistor: Change in light leads to change in resistance
 Straingauge: Change in length or position into change in resistance)
 LVDT, Mic

NEQ R, L, C

Passive
sensors

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 12

Analog and Digital Sensors
 Classification based on the nature of the output signal
 Analog sensor
 Gives an output that varies continuously as the input changes
 Output can have infinite number of values within the sensor’s range

 Digital sensor
 Has an output that varies in discrete steps or pulses or sampled form
and so can have a finite number of values
 E.g., Revolution counter: A cam, attached to a revolving body whose
motion is being measured, opens and closes a switch
 The switching operations are counted by an electronic counter

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 13

Sensor Classification
 Sensors can also be classified according to the application
 Example
 Measurement of displacement, motion, temperature, intensity,
sensors

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 14

Overview
 Introduction
 Classification of sensors
 Passive sensors
 Resistive sensors
 Potentiometers, temperature dependent resistors, strain gauge,
photoconductors (photoresistors), Piezoresistive
 Capacitive sensors
 Inductive sensors
 Active sensors

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 15

Resistive Sensors - Potentiometer
 Examples: Displacement, liquid level (in petrol-tank level
indicator) using potentiometer or rheostat
 Convert s linear (translatory) or angular (rotary) displacement
into a change of resistance in the resistive element provided with
a movable contact

 Petrol-tank level indicator

 Change in petrol level moves a
potentiometer arm
 Output signal is proportion to the
external voltage source applied
across the potentiometer
 The energy in the output signal
comes from the external power
source

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Instrum. & Control Eng. for Energy Systems - Ch. 4 Sensors and Transducers 17
Resistive Sensors – Potentiometer …
 A linear or rotary movement of a moving contact on a slide
wire indicates the magnitude of the variable as a change in
resistance which can easily be converted by a proper
electrical circuit into measurements of volt or current

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 18

Resistive Sensors – Temperature Dependent Resistors
 Two classes of thermal resistors are
 Metallic element
 Semiconductor
 For most metals, the resistance increases with increase in
temperature

R (T )  R0 [1  1T   2T 2  ...]  R0 [1  T ]
 Where  is the temperature coefficient of resistance and given as

1 R
 
T R0
 Example: Platinum
 Has a linear temperature-resistance characteristics
 Reproducible over a wide range of temperature
 Platinum Thermometers are used for temperature measurement

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Instrum. & Control Eng. for Energy Systems - Ch. 4 Sensors and Transducers 20
Resistive Sensors – Temperature Dependent…
 Semiconductor based resistance thermometers elements
 The resistance of such elements decreases with increasing
temperature
 Example: Thermistor
 The resistance-temperature relationship is non-linear and
governed by
1 1
(  )
R (T )  R0 e T T0
; T0  3000 K
 Where R0 is the resistance at absolute temp (in Kelvin) and  is
material constant expressed in degree Kelvin

 Most semiconductor materials used for thermometry

possess high resistivity and high negative temperature
coefficients

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Resistive Sensors – Temperature Dependent…
 The temperature coefficient of resistance is
1 R 
   2
T R0 T

  is typically 4000 k and for T = 300k,

 4000
    0.044
T2 300 2

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Instrum. & Control Eng. for Energy Systems - Ch. 4 Sensors and Transducers 23
strain gauge
 If a strip of conductive metal is stretched, it will
become skinnier and longer, both changes
resulting in an increase of electrical resistance
end-to-end.
 Conversely, if a strip of conductive metal is placed
under compressive force (without buckling), it will
broaden and shorten. Such a device is called a
strain gauge.

ECEg535:-Instrumentation Eng'g By Sintayehu Challa

Contd.

 Most strain gauges are smaller than a

postage stamp, and they look something
like this

ECEg535:-Instrumentation Eng'g
By Sintayehu Challa
Resistive Sensors – Strain Gauges
 Is a secondary transducer that senses tensile or
compressive strain in a particular direction at a point on
the surface of a body or structure
 Used to measure force, pressure, displacement
R  R ( e)
 Where e=l/l is the strain
 The resistance of an unstrained conductor is given as
l
R
A
 Under strained condition, resistance of conductor changes
by R because of l, A, and/or 

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 26

Resistive Sensors – Strain Gauges …
 To find the change in resistance R,
R R R
R  l  A  
l A 
 l l
 l  2 A  
A A A
 Dividing both sides by R, we get the fractional change as
R l A 
  
R l A 
 Let us define eL = l/l as the longitudinal stain and eT as the
transversal strain
 Also assume that eT = -eL ,where  is the Poisson’s Ratio

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 27

Resistive Sensors – Strain Gauges …
 Then, Gauge Factor, G is defined as
R/R R/R
G 
l / l eL

 G is also known as Strain-Sensitivity factor; rearranging

terms, we get
/
G  (1  2 ) 
eL
/
 Where eL is the Piezoresistive term
 For most metals, the Piezoresistive term is about 0.4 and
0.2 <  < 0.5
 Thus, Gauge factor for metallic stain gauges is in the range 2.0–2.5
(not sensitive)

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 28

Resistive Sensors – Strain Gauges …
 Sensitive measurements require very high Gauge factors in
the range of 100-300
 Such factor can be obtained from semiconductor strain
gauges
 Due to the significant contribution from the Piezoresistive term

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 29

Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor
 Piezoresistivity is a strain dependent resistivity in a single
crystal semiconductor
 When pressure is applied to the diaphragm, it causes a
strain in the resistor
 Resistance change is proportional to this strain, and hence change
in pressure

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 30

Resistive Sensors – Photoconductor
 Are light sensitive resistors with non-linear negative
temperature coefficient
 Are resistive optical radiation transducers
 Photoconductors have resistance variation that depends on
illumination
 The resistance illumination characteristics is given by

R  RD e   E
 Where RD is Dark Resistance and E is illumination level in Lux

 Photoconductors are used in

 Cameras, light sensors in spectrophotometer
 Counting systems where an object interrupts a light beam hitting the
photoconductor, etc.

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Photoconductive Transducers
 A voltage is impressed on the semiconductor material
 When light strikes the semiconductor material, there is a
decrease in the resistance resulting in an increase in the current
indicated by the meter
 They enjoy a wide range of applications and are useful for
measurement of radiation at all levels
 The schematic diagram of this device is shown below

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 32

Photovoltaic Cells
 When light strikes the barrier between the transparent metal layer
and the semiconductor material, a voltage is generated
 The output of the device is strongly dependent on the load
resistance R
 The most widely used applications is the light exposure meter in
photographic work

Schematic of a photovoltaic cell.

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 33

Overview
 Introduction
 Classification of sensors
 Passive sensors
 Resistive sensors
 Capacitive sensors
 Inductive sensors
 Active sensors

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 34

Capacitive Transducers
 The parallel plate capacitance is given by
A
C   0 r
d
 d= distance between plates
 A=overlapping area
 0 = 8.85x10-12 F/m is the absolute permittivity, r =dielectric
constant (r =1 for air and r =3 for plastics)
 Displacement
measurement can be
achieved by varying d,
overlapping area A
and the dielectric
constant
Schematic of a capacitive transducer.

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 35

Capacitive Transducers – Liquid Level Measurement
 A simple application of
such a transducer is for
liquid measurement
 The dielectric constant
changes between the
electrodes as long as there
is a change in the level of
the liquid

Capacitive transducer for liquid level

measurement.

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 36

Capacitive Transducers – Pressure Sensor
 Use electrical property of a capacitor to measure the
displacement
 Diaphragm: elastic pressure sensor displaced in proportion
to change in pressure
 Acts as a plate of a capacitor

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 37

Capacitive Transducers – Pressure Sensor
 Components: Fixed plate, diaphragm, displaying device,
dielectric material (air)
 When the diaphragm deflects, there is change in the gap
between the two plates which in turn deflects the meter
 Capacitance C of the
capacitor is inversely
proportional to distance d
between the plates, i.e.,
1
C
d

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 38

Capacitive Transducers - Linear Displacement
 Variable area capacitance displacement transducer

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 39

Overview
 Introduction
 Classification of sensors
 Passive sensors
 Resistive sensors
 Capacitive sensors
 Inductive sensors
 Active sensors

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 40

Inductive Sensors
 For a coil of n turns, the inductance L is given by
N2 N2
L  A 
l R
 Where
 N: Number: of turns of the coil
 l: Mean length of the magnetic path
 A: Area of the magnetic path
 : Permeability of the magnetic material
 R: Magnetic reluctance of the circuit
 Application of inductive sensors
 Force, displacement, pressure, …
 Inductance variation can be in the form of
 Self inductance or
 Mutual inductance: e.g., differential transformer

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 41

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
 Input voltage (alternating current): One primary coil
 There will be a magnetic coupling between the core and the coils
 Output voltage: Two secondary coils connected in series
 Operates using the principle of variation of mutual
inductance
 The output voltage is
a function of the
core’s displacement
 Widely used for
translating linear
motion into an
electrical signal
Schematic diagram of a differential transformer

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 42

LVDT - Output Characteristics

Output characteristics of an LVDT

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 43

LVDT – Applications
 Measure linear mechanical displacement
 Provides resolution about 0.05mm, operating range from  0.1mm
to  300 mm, accuracy of  0.5% of full-scale reading
 The input ac excitation of LVDT can range in frequency from 50 Hz
to 20kHz
 Used to measure position in control systems and precision
manufacturing
 Can also be used to measure force, pressure, acceleration,
etc..

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 44

LVDT – Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
 LVDT can be combined
with a Bourdon tube
 LVDT converts
displacement into an
electrical signal
 The signal can be
displayed on an electrical
device calibrated in
terms of pressure

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 45

LVDT – Bellows
 The bellow is held inside a protective casing
 Differential pressure sensor
 Used to measure low pressure

 When pressure is applied via the hole,

the bellow expands a distance d
 This displacement can be calibrated in
terms of pressure
d
Punknown  
A
 Where:
 d: distance moved by the bellows in m,
 A is cross sectional area of the bellow in m2
  is the stiffness of the below in N.m-1
Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 4 Sensors and Transducers 46
LVDT and Bellow Combination
 Bellows produce small displacement
 Amplified by LVDT and potentiometer

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 47

Overview
 Introduction
 Classification of sensors
 Passive sensors
 Active sensors
 Thermoelectric transducers
 Photoelectric transducers
 Piezoelectric transducers
 Hall-effect transudes
 Tachometric generators

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 48

Active Sensors - Thermocouple
 Thermoelectric transducers provide electrical signal in
response to change in temperature
 Example: Thermocouple
 Thermocouple: Converts thermal energy into electrical
energy
 Application: To measure temperature
 Contains a pair of dissimilar metal wires joined together at
one end (sensing or hot junction) and terminated at the
other end (reference or cold junction)
 When a temperature difference exists b/n the sensing
junction and the reference, an emf is produced
Induced emf  E   (T1  T2 )   (T12  T22 )  ....   (T1  T2 )

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Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 50
Active Sensors – Thermocouple …
 Typical material combinations used as thermocouples

Type Materials Temp. Range Output voltage

(mV)
T Copper-Constantan -2000C to 3500C -5.6 to 17.82
J Iron-Constantan 0 to 7500C 0 to 42.28
E
 To get higher Chromel-Constantan
output emf -200 to 9000C -8.82 to 68.78
 Connect two or more Thermocouples in series
K Chromel-Alumel
 For measurement of average temperature -200 to 12500C -5.97 to 50.63
 Connect Thermocouples in parallel
R Platinum = 13% 0 to 14500C 0 to 16.74
Rhodium = 87%

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Instrum. & Control Eng. for Energy Systems - Ch. 4 Sensors and Transducers 52
Active Sensors – Thermocouple …
 Applications
 Temperature measurement
 Voltage measurement
 Rectifier based rms indications are waveform dependent
 They are normally designed for sinusoidal signals
 Hence, error for non-sinusoidal signals
 Use thermocouple based voltmeters
 Here, temperature of a hot junction is proportional to the true rms
value of the current

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 53

 Active Sensors – Thermocouple Meter
 The measured a.c. voltage signal is
applied to a heater element
 A thermocouple senses the
temperature of the heater due to heat
generated ( ) I 2
rms
 The d.c. voltage generated in the
thermocouple is applied to a moving-
coil meter
 The thermocouple will be calibrated to read
current (Irms)
 AC with frequencies up to 100 MHz may be
measured with thermocouple meters
 One may also measure high frequency Schematic of a
current by first rectifying the signal to DC thermocouple meter.
and then measuring the DC

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 54

Overview
 Introduction
 Classification of sensors
 Passive sensors
 Active sensors
 Thermoelectric transducers
 Photoelectric transducers
 Piezoelectric transducers
 Hall-effect transudes
 Tachometric generators

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 55

Photoelectric Transducers
 Versatile tools for detecting radiant energy or light
 Are extensively used in instrumentation
 Most known photosensitive devices include
1. Photovoltaic cells
 Semiconductor junction devices used to convert radiation energy
into electrical energy

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 56

Photoelectric Transducers …
2. Photo diode
 A diode that is normally reverse-biased=> Current is very low
 When a photon is absorbed, electrons are freed so current starts
to flow, i.e., the diode is forward biased
 Has an opening in its case containing a lens which focuses
incident light on the PN junction
3. Photo transistor
 Also operate in reverse-biased
 Responds to light intensity on its lens instead of base current

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 57

Overview
 Introduction
 Classification of sensors
 Passive sensors
 Active sensors
 Thermoelectric transducers
 Photoelectric transducers
 Piezoelectric transducers
 Hall-effect transudes
 Tachometric generators

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 58

Piezoelelectric Transducers
 Convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
 If any crystal is subject to an external force F, there will be
an atomic displacement, x
 The displacement is related to the applied force in exactly the
same way as elastic sensor such as spring

 Asymmetric crystalline material such as Quartz, Rochelle

Salt and Barium Tantalite produce an emf when they are
placed under stress
 An externally force, entering the sensor through its
pressure port, applies pressure to the top of a crystal
 This produces an emf across the crystal proportional to the
magnitude of the applied pressure

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 59

Piezoelelectric Transducers
 A piezoelectric crystal is placed between two plate
electrodes
 Application of force on such a plate will develop a stress
and a corresponding deformation
 With certain
crystals, this
deformation will
produce a potential
difference at the
surface of the
crystal
 This effect is called
piezoelectric effect The piezoelectric effect

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 60

Piezoelelectric Transducers …
 Induced charge is proportional to the impressed force
Q=dF
 d= charge sensitivity (C/m2)/(N/m2) = proportionality constant
 Output voltage E= g t P
 t= crystal thickness
 P = impressed pressure
 g=voltage sensitivity (V/m)/(N/m2)
 Shear stress can also produce piezoelectric effect
 Widely used as inexpensive pressure transducers for
dynamic measurements

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 61

Piezoelelectric Transducers ….
 Piezoelelectric sensors have good frequency response
 Example: Accelerometer

Piezoelectric accelerometer

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 62

Piezoelelectric Transducers …
 Example: Pressure Sensors
 Detect pressure changes by
the displacement of a thin
metal or semiconductor
diaphragm
 A pressure applied on the
diaphragm causes a strain on
the piezoelectric crystal
 The crystal generates voltage
at the output
 This voltage is proportional to
the applied pressure

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 63

Overview
 Introduction
 Classification of sensors
 Passive sensors
 Active sensors
 Thermoelectric transducers
 Photoelectric transducers
 Piezoelectric transducers
 Hall-effect transudes
 Tachometric generators

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 64

Hall-effect Transducers
 Hall voltage is produced when a material is
 Kept perpendicular to the magnetic field and
 A direct current is passed through it
 The Hall-voltage is expressed as
IC B
VH  K H
t
 Where
 Ic: Control current flowing through the Hall-effect sensor, in Amps
 B: Flux density of the magnetic field applied, in Wb/m2
 t: Thickness of the Hall-effect sensor, in meters
 KH : Hall-effect coefficient
 Hall-effect sensors are used to measure flux density
 Can detect very week magnetic fields or small change in magnetic
flux density

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 65

Hall-effect Transducers …
 Like active sensors, it generates
voltage VH
 It also need an external control
current IC like passive sensors
 The sensor can be used for
measurement of
 Magnetic quantities (B, )
 Mobility of carriers
 Very small amount of power

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g – Ch.3 Sensors and Transducers 66

Hall-effect Transducers …
 Magnetic field forces
electrons to concentrate
on one side of the
conductor (mainly uses
semiconductor)
 This accumulation
creates emf, which is
proportional to the
magnetic field strength
 Used in proximity
sensors

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 67

Overview
 Introduction
 Classification of sensors
 Passive sensors
 Active sensors
 Thermoelectric transducers
 Photoelectric transducers
 Piezoelectric transducers
 Hall-effect transudes
 Tachometric generators

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 68

Tachometric Generators
 Tachometer – any device used to measure shaft’s rotation
 Tachometric generator
 A machine, when driven by a rotating mechanical force, produces
an electric output proportional to the speed of rotation
 Essentially a small generators

 Tachometric generators connect to the rotating shaft,

whose displacement is to be measured, by, e.g.,
 Direct coupling or
 Means of belts or gears
 They produce an output which primarily relates to speed
 Displacement can be obtained by integrating speed
 Types of Tachometric generators: Generally a.c. or d.c.

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 69

Tachometric Generators
 Voltage generated is proportional to rotation of the shaft

D.C. tachometric generator A.C. tachometric generator

Introduction to Instrumntaion Eng‘g - Ch. 3 Sensors and Transducers 70

 Notice
Mid Semester Exam On December
1,2012@8:30 A.M(Saturday) In
Room 109 and 113

Instrum. & Control Eng. for Energy Systems - Ch. 4 Sensors and Transducers 71