Operational Amplifiers

Chapter-10: Operational Amplifier

Electronic Devices & Circuit Theory by Boylestad and Nashelsky
 Operational Amplifiers
 An operational amplifier is a very high
gain differential amplifier with high input
impedance (few MΩ) and low output
impedance (< 100 Ω).
 Typical uses of the operational amplifier
is to provide:
 voltage amplitude changes (amplitude and
polarity),
 oscillators, Differential
Amplifier
 filter circuits, and many types of
instrumentation circuits.
 An op-amp contains a number of
differential amplifier stages to achieve a
very high voltage gain.
 Symbol of an Operational Amplifier is
shown here.
 Operational Amplifiers

 The basic circuit is made using a difference amplifier having two

inputs (plus and minus) and at least one output.
 The plus (+) input (Non-Inverting) produces an output that is in phase
with the signal applied.
 The minus (-) input (Inverting) results in an opposite-polarity output.
 Operational Amplifiers- Types of Operations
Single-ended Input Operation
When the input signal is connected
to one input with the other input is
grounded.
– If the input is applied to the
plus (+) input, output will have
the same polarity as the
applied input signal.

– If the input signal is applied to

the minus (-) input, the output
will have opposite polarity to
the applied signal.
 Operational Amplifiers
Double-ended (Differential) Input
 Input signals are applied at both,
inverting as well as non-inverting,
inputs and this is referred to as
double-ended operation.

Input Signal Vd applied between
the two input terminals results in
an amplified output signal VO ,
which is in phase with the input
signal.

If two separate signals Vi1 & Vi2 are
applied at the inputs, the
difference signal Vi1 – Vi2 gets
amplified as output signal VO, which
is in phase with the input signal.
 Operational Amplifiers-Double Ended Output
• The op-amp can also be operated with opposite outputs, as shown
below.
• An input signal applied to either input will result in outputs from both
output terminals, these outputs always being opposite in polarity.
• Figure (on the right) shows a single-ended input with a double-ended
output. As shown, the signal applied to the plus input results in two
amplified outputs of opposite polarity.
Operational Amplifiers-Double Ended Output
• Figure-A shows the operation with a single
output measured between output terminals
(not with respect to ground). This difference
output signal is VO1 - VO2.
• The difference output is also referred to as
a floating signal since neither output
terminal is the ground (reference) terminal.
• The difference output is twice as large as Fig-A
either VO1 or VO2 because they are of
opposite polarity and subtracting them
results in twice their amplitude [e.g.,
10V - (-10 V) = 20 V].
• Figure-B shows a differential input,
differential output operation. The input is
applied between the two input terminals
and the output taken from between the two
output terminals. This is fully differential Fig-B
operation.
 Operational Amplifiers
AC Equivalent Circuit of the Op-Amp
 AC equivalent circuit of the op-amp is given below. Input signal sees
high input impedance Ri .
 The output voltage VO is equal to amplifier gain (Ad ) times the input
signal (Vd ) taken through an output impedance Ro, which is typically
very low. VO = Ad Vd
Gain Ad
 Common Mode Operation
Common Mode Operation

When same input signal is applied to both inputs, common mode
operation results. Ideally, the two inputs are equally amplified with
opposite-polarities, thus resulting output is 0-V. Practically, a small
output signal will result.
 Common Mode Rejection
Common Mode Rejection

In a differential amplifier, the signals that are opposite at the inputs are
highly amplified, whereas those that are common to the two inputs are
amplified slightly.

Thus the overall operation is to amplify the difference signal while
rejecting the common signal at the two inputs.
 Since noise is generally common to both inputs, the differential
connection attenuates the noise while amplifying the difference signal
applied at the inputs. This operating feature is referred to as common-
mode rejection .
 Differential Amplifier
 The differential amplifier circuit has two separate inputs
and two separate outputs, and the emitters are
connected together. Following input signal combinations
are possible:

Single-ended Operation: Single signal is applied to
either input with the other input is connected to the
ground. Due to the common emitter connection, the input
signal operates both transistors, resulting in output from
both Collectors.

Double-ended Operation: Two opposite-polarity input
signals are applied to the two inputs. The difference of
the inputs results in outputs from both collectors.
 Common-mode Operation: Same input is applied to
both inputs. Common input signal results in opposite
signals at each collector, canceling each other, resulting
in output signal being zero. In practice, the opposite
signals do not completely cancel, and a small signal
results as output.
 The main feature of the differential amplifier is large gain
for opposite signals as compared to small gain for
common inputs. Ratio of difference gain to the common
gain is called common-mode rejection.
 DC Bias of Differential Amplifier
• With the dc voltage at each input being 0
V, the common-emitter dc bias voltage is
VE = 0 V - VBE
= -0.7 V
• The emitter dc bias current is then

IE =

• Assuming that the transistors are well

matched, the collector current will be
IC1 = IC2 =
resulting in a collector voltage of
 Attributes of an Ideal Op Amp
An ideal op-amp circuit has infinite input impedance, zero output
impedance, and infinite voltage gain. A summary of ideal Op Amp
attributes is given below:
IDEAL OP AMP ATTRIBUTES
Infinite Differential Gain
Zero Common Mode Gain
Zero Offset Voltage
Zero Bias Current
Infinite Bandwidth
OP AMP INPUT ATTRIBUTES
Infinite Impedance
Responds to Differential Voltages
Does not Respond to Common Mode Voltages
OP AMP OUTPUT ATTRIBITES
Zero Impedance
 Basic Op Amp
 The basic op-amp acts as a constant-gain multiplier.

An input signal V1 is applied through resistor R1 to the (-) input. The output is fed back to
the same (-) input through resistor Rf .
 The (+) input is connected to ground.

Since the input signal is at the (-) input, the resulting output V0 is opposite in phase to
the input signal.

The ac equivalent circuit of op amp has Ri as input resistance and Ro as output resistance.
 Basic Op Amp
 The ac equivalent circuit of op amp
has Ri as input resistance and Ro as
output resistance.

 In an ideal op-amp equivalent circuit –

Ri is replaced by an infinite resistance and Ro by a zero resistance.
To understand the analysis of Op-amp further, we
must know the Superimposition theorem.
This theorem states that the total current in any
part of a linear circuit equals the algebraic sum
of the currents produced by each source
separately.
Op Amp Equivalent Circuit shown at Fig-C below has two
voltage sources V1 and VO. To calculate the voltage Vi, work
out the impact of V1 & VO as per Superimposition theorem.
Assume Vi is composed of Vi1 (due to V1 while VO =0) and Vi2
(due to VO while V1 =0)
Vi = Vi1 + Vi2
Fig-A
Step1: Calculate Vi1 due to V1 while VO=0

Step2: Calculate Vi2 due to VO = -AV.Vi while V1=0

Fig-B
Step3: Total Voltage Vi = Vi1 + Vi2

+
Vi =
This expression can be solved for Vi which is –

Fig-C
…contd on next slide
Equation from previous slide is

If AV >> 1 and AV. R1 >> Rf, then the above

equation can be simplified further Fig-A

From Fig-C, we know that

VO = -AV.Vi
Dividing both sides

= Fig-B

Ratio of Overall output to input voltage is dependent

only on resistors R1 & Rf subject to Av being very high.
Fig-C
 Basic Op Amp
Unity Gain
Voltage gain =

If Rf = R1 then Voltage gain = -1

 Circuit provides a unity voltage gain with
180° phase inversion.

Constant-Magnitude Gain
 If R f is some multiple of R1, and the overall
amplifier gain is a constant. For example, if
Rf = 10R1, then
Voltage gain = - Rf / R1 = -10
 Circuit provides a voltage gain of 10 with a
180° phase inversion from the input signal.
 Selection of precise values of Rf and R1
can provide wide range of gains.
 The gain is as accurate as the resistors
used and is only slightly affected by
Practical Op Amp Circuits
 Practical Op Amp Circuits – Inverting Amp

Inverting Amplifier

The most widely used
constant-gain amplifier circuit
is the inverting amplifier.
 The output is obtained by
multiplying the input by a
fixed or constant gain, fixed
by the input resistor ( R1 ) and
feedback resistor ( Rf ).
Vo = - (Rf / R1) * V1

This output is in inverted
form with respect to the input.
Practical Op Amp Circuits – Non-Inverting Amp
Non-Inverting Amplifier:

Non-inverting amplifier or constant-gain
multiplier circuit is shown here.

To determine voltage gain, equivalent
representation shown is used.

Voltage across R1 is V1, with Vi =0 V,

use voltage divider of R1 and Rf ,to get V1


which results in:-
 Practical Op Amp Circuits – Unity Follower

Unity Follower:
 The unity-follower circuit, shown below provides a gain of unity (1)
with no polarity or phase reversal. From the equivalent circuit, it is
clear that
Vo = V 1

The output is of same polarity and magnitude as the input. The
circuit operates like an emitter- or source-follower circuit except
that the gain is exactly unity.
 Constant Gain Amplifier
Rf
EXAMPLE below shows three op-amp
stages to provide outputs that are 10, 20,
and 50 times larger than the input. A
feedback resistor of Rf = 500 kΩ is used in R1
all the stages.
The resistor component for each stage is Rf
calculated to be
R1 = - Rf / A1
R2
= -500 kΩ /-10 = 50 kΩ
R2 = -Rf / A2 Rf

= -500 kΩ /-20 = 25 kΩ
R3 = -Rf / A3 R3
= -500 kΩ /-50 = 10 kΩ
 Multi-Stage Gains
When a number of stages are connected in series, the overall gain is the product
of the individual stage gains.
Figure below shows a connection of three stages. The first stage is connected to
provide non-inverting gain as given by Equation Av = 1+ (Rf/R1).
Next two stages provide an inverting gain of Av = -(Rf/R1) each. The overall
circuit gain is then non-inverting and is calculated by
A = A1.A2.A3 - Rf
R3
where A1 = 1 + , A2 = , and A3 =
 Practical Op Amp Circuits
Summing Amplifier
Summing amplifier circuit shown below is a three-input summing
amplifier circuit, which provides algebraic sum (addition) of three
voltages, each multiplied by a constant-gain factor. Using the
equivalent representation shown below, the output voltage is expressed
in terms of the inputs:-

Each input adds a voltage to the output multiplied by its separate constant-gain
multiplier. If more inputs are used, each adds an additional component to the output.
 Op Amp as Integrator
• If the feedback component used is a capacitor, as
shown in the adjacent Figure, the resulting circuit is
an Integrator.
• The virtual-ground equivalent circuit shown below is
used to derive an expression for the voltage
between input and output in terms of the current I
from input to output.
• Virtual ground means that the voltage at the junction
of R and XC can be taken as “Zero” (since Vi =0 V)
as no current goes into ground at that point.
• The capacitive impedance can be expressed as

where s = jω in the Laplace notation.

Solving for VO > V1 yields

This can be rewritten as 

 shows that the output is the integral of the input, with an
inversion and scale multiplier of 1/RC .
Ability to integrate a given signal provides an analog computer the ability to solve
differential equations electrically.
Integration operation is one of summation, summing the area under a waveform
or a curve over a period of time. If a fixed voltage is applied as input to an
integrator circuit, the output voltage will grow over time, providing a ramp voltage.
The output voltage ramp (for a fixed input voltage) is opposite in polarity to the
input voltage and is multiplied by the factor 1/ RC .
As an example, consider an input voltage V1 = 1 V to the integrator circuit shown
below. The scale factor of 1/ RC is
 Op Amp as Differentiator
A differentiator circuit is shown below. The differentiator provides a
useful operation, the resulting relation for the circuit being

where the scale factor is RC

 Operational Amplifier: Chapter 10
(Book – Boylestad)

Page 621 - 625 Intro, Single Ended Operation, Double Ended Op,

Double Ended Output, Common Mode Op, Common Mode Rejection,
Differential Amp, DC Bias

Page 634 -  636 : Op Amp Basics, Basic Op Amp,  Unity Gain, Constant
Gain Magnitude, Virtual Ground,

Page 637-  641  : Practical Op amp Circuits- Inverting Amp, Non-

Inverting Amp, Unity Follower, Summing Amp, Integrator, Differentiator
End