Overview of Artificial

Intelligence

Abu saleh Musa Miah

Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, BAUST, Bangladesh
email: [email protected], tel: +88-01734264899
web: www.baust.edu.bd/cse
 Artificial Intelligence
www.tutorialcare.com/Artificial Intelligence

Textbook ：
Russell S., Norvig P. Artificial intelligence- a modern approach
(2ed,PH,2003)(T)(1112s)) Russel

Reference for experiment ：

Slicer_Python_
3rd_EditionTextbook for Shortcut Understanding ：
artificial-intelligence-a-new-synthesis
Artificial Intelligence
Author: Elaine Rich & Kevin Knight
Introduction to Artificial Intelligence & Expert Systems
Author: Dan W. Patterson

2
 Outlines
 What is artificial intelligence?
 Related research fields
 A brief review of AI history
 Some key persons.
 Artificial Intelligent
What is AI?
We have claimed AI is exciting, but we have not said what it is!.
 Artificial Intelligent
Think about this. AI=Artificial + Intelligence
Artificial=non natural, Intelligence=Ability to Understand think and
learn.
For thousands of years, we have tried to understand how we think;
that is, how a mere handful of matter can perceive, understand, predict,
and manipulate a world far larger and more complicated than itself.

The field of artificial intelligence, or AI, goes further still: it attempts

not just to understand but also to build intelligent entities
 Definition of AI
Thinking Humanly
“The exciting new effort to make computers think . . . machines with
minds, in the full and literal sense.” (Haugeland, 1985)
“[The automation of] activities that we associate with human thinking, activities
such as decision-making, problem solving, learning . . .” (Bellman, 1978) “

Thinking Rationally
“The study of mental faculties through the use of computational models.”
(Charniak and McDermott, 1985)

The study of the computations that make it possible to perceive, reason, and act.”
(Winston, 1992)
 Definition of AI
Acting Humanly
“The art of creating machines that perform functions that require
intelligence
when performed by people.” (Kurzweil,1990)

“The study of how to make computers do things at which, at the moment, people are
better.” (Rich and Knight, 1991)

Acting Rationally
“Computational Intelligence is the study of the design of intelligent agents.”
(Poole et al., 1998)
“AI . . . is concerned with intelligent behavior in artifacts.” (Nilsson, 1998)
 Acting humanly: The Turing Test
• Turing (1950) "Computing machinery & intelligence":
• "Can machines think?"  "Can machines behave
intelligently?"
• Operational test for intelligent behavior: the Imitation
Game

• Predicted that by 2000, a machine might have a 30% chance of

fooling a lay person for 5 minutes
• , language understanding, learninAnticipated all major arguments
against AI in following 50 years
• Problem:
Suggested major components of AI: knowledge, reasoningg
Turing test is not reproducible, constructive, or amenable to
mathematical analysis
 Acting humanly: The Turing Test
 The computer would need to possess the following
capabilities:
 natural language processing to enable it to communicate successfully in
English;
 knowledge representation to store what it knows or hears;
 automated reasoning to use the stored information to answer questions and
to draw new conclusions;
 machine learning to adapt to new circumstances and to detect and
extrapolate patterns
 physical simulation of a person is unnecessary for intelligence
 total Turing Test includes a video signal so that the interrogator can test the
subject’s perceptual abilities, as well as the opportunity for the interrogator to pass
physical objects “through the hatch.”
To pass the total Turing Test, the computer will need
computer vision to perceive objects, and
robotics to manipulate objects and move about
 Thinking humanly: cognitive modeling
• 1960s “cognitive revolution": information-processing psychology
replaced prevailing orthodoxy of behaviorism

• Requires scientific theories of internal activities of the brain

- What level of abstraction? “Knowledge" or “circuits"?
- How to validate? Requires
1) Predicting and testing behavior of human subjects (top-down)
or 2) Direct identication from neurological data (bottom-up)

• Both approaches (roughly, Cognitive Science and Cognitive

Neuroscience) are now distinct from AI

• Both share with AI the following characteristic:

the available theories do not explain (or engender) anything resembling
human-level general intelligence

 Hence, all three fields share one principal direction!

The cognitive modeling approach
we must have some way of determining how humans think. We need to
get inside the actual workings of human minds.
There are three ways to do this:
through introspection—trying to catch our own thoughts as they
go by;
through psychological experiments—observing a person in
action; and
Through brain imaging—observing the brain in action.
Acting rationally: The rational agent approach

Normative (or prescriptive) rather than descriptive

Aristotle: what are correct arguments/thought processes?
Several Greek schools developed various forms of logic:
notation and rules of derivation for thoughts;
may or may not have proceeded to the idea of mechanization
Direct line through mathematics and philosophy to modern AI
Problems:
1) Not all intelligent behavior is mediated by logical deliberation
2) What is the purpose of thinking? What thoughts should I have
out of all the thoughts (logical or otherwise) that I could have?
Acting rationally: The rational agent approach

An agent is just something that acts all computer programs do

something, but computer agents are expected to do more:
 operate autonomously,
 perceive their environment,
 persist over a prolonged time period,
 adapt to change, and
 create and pursue goals

A rational agent is one that acts so as to achieve the best outcome or,
when there is uncertainty, the best expected outcome.
 Acting rationally: rational agent
• Rational behavior: doing the right thing

• The right thing: that which is expected to maximize

goal achievement, given the available information
• Doesn't necessarily involve thinking-e.g., blinking
reflex-but thinking should be in the service of
rational action

• Aristotle (Nicomachean Ethics):

Every art and every inquiry, and similarly every
action and pursuit, is thought to aim at some good
 Rational agents
• An agent is an entity that perceives and acts
• This course is about designing rational agents
• Abstractly, an agent is a function from percept
histories to actions:
f :P  A
*

 For any given class of environments and tasks, we

seek the agent (or class of agents) with the best
performance
• Caveat: computational limitations make perfect
rationality unachievable
design best program for given machine resources
 The Importance of AI
• Is AI important?
• Definitely!
• Most important developments of this century
• It will affect the lives of most individuals in civilized countries by the
end of the century
• And countries leading in the development of AI by then will emerge
as the dominant economic powers of the world
 Became apparent to many world’s leading economic countries
(during late 1970’s)
 Japan (Fifth generation)
 UK (Alvey Project)
 Canada, Russia, Italy, France, Singapore etc
 USA (MCC, DARPA, ALV)
 The future of a county is closely tied to the commitment it is willing
to make in funding research programs in AI
 Task Domains
• Mundane Tasks • Formal Tasks
 Perception  Games
-Vision -Chess
-Speech -Backgammon
 Natural Language -Checkers
-Understanding - Go
 Mathematics
-Generation
-Geometry
-Translation -Logic
 Commonsense reasoning -Integral Calculus
 Robot control/HRI - Proving properties of prog.

Expert Tasks
Engineering Scientific analysis Medical
diagnosis
-design
-Fault finding Financial analysis
-Manufacturing planning
 Foundation of AI or prehistory
• Philosophy Logic, methods of reasoning, mind as physical
system foundations of learning, language,
rationality

• Mathematics Formal representation and proof algorithms,

computation, (un)decidability, (in)tractability,
probability
• Economics formal theory of rational decisions, utility, decision theory

• Neuroscience physical substrate for mental activity

• Psychology adaptation, phenomena of perception and motor control

experimental techniques (psychophysics, etc.)

• Computer building fast computers

engineering

• Control theory homeostatic systems, stability

simple optimal agent designs

• Linguistics knowledge representation, grammar

 Philosophy

 Can formal rules be used to draw valid conclusions?

 How does the mind arise from a physical brain?
 Where does knowledge come from?
 How does knowledge lead to action?

 Aristotle (384–322 B.C.) was the first to formulate a precise set of laws
governing the rational part of the mind.
 He developed an informal system of syllogisms for proper reasoning, which in
principle allowed one to generate conclusions mechanically, given initial
premises.
 Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) proposed that reasoning was like numerical
computation, that “we add and subtract in our silent thoughts.”
 Around 1500, Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) designed but did not build a mechanical
calculator; recent reconstructions have shown the design to be functional. The first
known calculating machine was constructed around 1623 by the German scientist
Wilhelm Schickard (1592–1635), although the Pascaline, built in 1642 by Blaise Pascal
 Philosophy
 Pascal wrote that “the arithmetical machine produces
effects which appear nearer to thought than all the actions of
animals.”
 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) built a mechanical
device intended to carry out operations on concepts rather
than numbers, but its scope was rather limited.
 Leibniz did surpass Pascal by building a calculator that
could add, subtract, multiply, and take roots, whereas the
Pascaline could only add and subtract.
 Some speculated that machines might not just do
calculations but actually be able to think and act on their
own. In his 1651 book Leviathan,
 Mathematics

 What are the formal rules to draw valid conclusions?

 What can be computed?
 How do we reason with uncertain information?

 mathematical formalization in three fundamental areas:

 logic,
 computation, and
 probability
The first nontrivial algorithm is Euclid’s algorithm for computing
greatest common divisors. The word algorithm comes from
al-Khowarazmi, a Persian mathematician of the 9th century,
whose writings also introduced Arabic numerals and algebra to
Europe. Discussed algorithms for logical deduction, and, by
the late 19th century, efforts were under way to formalize
general mathematical reasoning as logicaldeduction.
 Economics

 How should we make decisions so as to maximize payoff?

 How should we do this when others may not go along?
 How should we do this when the payoff may be far in the
future?
 The science of economics got its start in 1776, when Scottish
philosopher Adam Smith (1723–1790) published An Inquiry into the
Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations.
 Most people think of economics as being about money, but
economists will say that they are really studying how
people make choices that lead to preferred outcomes.
 Decision theory, which combines probability theory with utility
theory, provides a formal and complete framework for decisions
made under uncertainty—that is, in cases where probabilistic
descriptions appropriately capture the decision maker’s environment.
 Neuroscience

 How do brains process information?

Neuroscience is the study of the brain.
 Brain enables thought is one of the great mysteries of science, the
fact that it does enable thought has been appreciated for thousands of
years because of the evidence that strong blows to the head can lead
to mental incapacitation.
 brain consisted of nerve cells, or neurons, but it was not until 1873
 mapping between areas of the brain and the parts of the
body that they control or from which receive sensory input
measurement of intact brain activity began in 1929 with the
invention by HansBerger of the electroencephalograph (EEG).
 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) (Ogawa et al.,
1990; Cabeza and Nyberg, 2001) is giving neuroscientists
unprecedentedly detailed images of brain activity, enabling
measurements that correspond in interesting ways to ongoing
cognitive processes.
Neuroscience
 Neuroscience

 How do humans and animals think and act?

 Computer engineering

 How can we build an efficient computer?

 Control theory and cybernetics

• How can artifacts operate under their own control?

 Linguistics
• How does language relate to thought?
 Potted history of AI
1943 McCulloch & Pitts: Boolean circuit model of brain
1950 Turing's \Computing Machinery and Intelligence"
1952- 69 Look, Ma, no hands!
1950s Early AI programs, including Samuel's checkers program,
Newell & Simon's Logic Theorist, Gelernter's Geometry Engine
1956 Dartmouth meeting: “Articial Intelligence" adopted
1965 Robinson's complete algorithm for logical reasoning
1966-74 AI discovers computational complexity
Neural network research almost disappears
1969-79 Early development of knowledge-based systems
1980-88 Expert systems industry booms
1988-93 Expert systems industry busts: \AI Winter"
1985-95 Neural networks return to popularity
1988- Resurgence of probability; general increase in technical depth
‘’Nouvelle AI": ALife, GAs, soft computing
1995- Agents, agents, everywhere……………
2003- Human-level AI back on the agenda
 State of the art
Which of the following can be done at present?
 Play a decent game of table tennis
 Drive safely along a curving mountain road
 Drive safely along Telegraph Avenue
 Buy a week's worth of groceries on the web
 Buy a week's worth of groceries at Berkeley Bowl
 Play a decent game of bridge
 Discover and prove a new mathematical theorem
 Design and execute a research program in molecular biology
 Write an intentionally funny story
 Give competent legal advice in a specialized area of law
 Translate spoken English into spoken Swedish in real time
 Converse successfully with another person for an hour
 Perform a complex surgical operation
 Unload any dishwasher and put everything away
 George Boole (1815-1864)
• George Boole was not
a computer scientist.
• Boolean algebra was
developed by him.
• This has become one
of the mathematic.
foundations of
computer science.
 Alfred North Whitehead (1861- 1947)
• Alfred North Whitehead was
an English mathematician who
became a philosopher.
• He wrote on algebra, logic,
foundations of mathematics,
philosophy of science, physics,
metaphysics, and education.
• He co-authored the epochal
Principia Mathematica with
Bertrand Russell.
 Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl
Russell (1872–1970)
• Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd
Earl Russell was a philosopher, historian,
logician, mathematician, advocate for
social reform, and pacifist.
• A prolific writer, he was a populariser of
philosophy and a commentator on a
large variety of topics.
• He was a prominent anti-war activist,
championing free trade between nations
and anti-imperialism.
• He wrote the essay On Denoting and was
co-author (with Alfred North Whitehead)
of Principia Mathematica, an attempt to
ground mathematics on the laws of logic.
 Alan Turing (1912-1954)
• Turing is often considered to be
the father of modern computer
science.
• Turing provided an influential
• formalization of the concept of
the algorithm and computation
with the Turing machine.
• With the Turing test, he made a
significant & characteristically
provocative contribution to the
debate regarding AI: whether it
will ever be possible to say that a
machine is conscious & can think.
 Claude Shannon(1916-2001)
• Shannon, an American electrical
engineer and mathematician, was
"the father of information
theory“.
• He is also credited with founding
both digital computer and digital
circuit design theory in 1937,
when, as a 21-year-old master's
student at MIT, he wrote a thesis
demonstrating that electrical
application of Boolean algebra
could construct and resolve any
logical, numerical relationship.
 John von Neumann (1903-1957)
• John von Neumann was a
Hungarian-American mathematician who
made major contributions to a vast range of
fields including
– set theory
– functional analysis
– quantum mechanics
– ergodic theory
– economics and game theory
– computer science
• The so called conventional CPU based
computer was proposed by him, and he is
generally regarded as one of the foremost
mathematicians of the 20th century.
 John McCarthy
• John McCarthy (born
September 4, 1927, in
Boston, Massachusetts), is an
American computer scientist
& cognitive scientist.
• He received the Turing
Award in 1971 for his major
contributions to the field of
AI.
• He was responsible for the
coining of the term "Artificial
Intelligence" in his 1955
proposal for the 1956
Dartmouth Conference and is
the inventor of the Lisp
programming language.
 Marvin Lee Minsky
• Marvin Lee Minsky (born
August 9, 1927) is an
American cognitive scientist in
the field of AI, co-founder of
MIT's AI laboratory, & author
of several texts on AI &
philosophy.
• Minsky won the Turing Award
in 1969, the Japan Prize in
1990, the IJCAI Award for
Research Excellence in 1991,
& the Benjamin Franklin
Medal from the Franklin
Institute in 2001.
 Herbert Alexander Simon (1916-2001)
• Herbert Alexander Simon was an American
political scientist whose research ranged across
the fields of cognitive psychology, computer
science, public administration, etc.
• Simon was a truly innovative thinker. He was
among the founding fathers of several of today's
most important scientific domains, including
artificial Intelligence, information processing,
decision-making, problem-solving, etc.
• He coined the terms bounded rationality &
satisficing, and was the first to analyze the & to
propose a preferential attachment mechanism to
explain power law distributions.
 Allen Newell (1927-1992)
• Allen Newell was a researcher in
computer science and cognitive
psychology at the RAND corporation
and at Carnegie Mellon University’s
School of Computer Science.
• He contributed to the Information
Processing Language (1956) and two of
the earliest AI programs, the Logic
Theory Machine (1956) and the General
Problem Solver (1957) (with Herbert
Simon).
• He was awarded the ACM's A.M. Turing
Award along with Herbert Simon in
1975 for their basic contributions to AI
& the psychology of human cognition.
 Edward Albert Feigenbaum
• Edward Albert Feigenbaum (born January
20, 1936) is a computer scientist working in
the field of AI.
• He is often called the "father of expert
systems.“
• In his PhD thesis, carried out under the
supervision of Herbert Simon, he developed
EPAM, one of the first computer models of
how people learn.
• He received the ACM Turing Award, jointly
with Raj Reddy in 1994 "For pioneering the
design and construction of large scale
artificial intelligence systems, demonstrating
the practical importance & potential
commercial impact of artificial intelligence
technology".
 What is AI?
Artificial intelligence is nothing but a capability of machine
to emitted intelligent human behavior.
AI achieve human behavior by understanding
how it think
How it learn
How it solve problem
 What is AI?
 AI concerned with design of intelligence in artificial device.
 According to the father of Artificial Intelligence, John McCarthy in
1956 ,
 “The science and engineering of making intelligent machines,
especially intelligent computer programs”.

 Artificial Intelligence is a way of making

 a computer,
 a computer-controlled robot
 a software think
 Intelligently similar manner the intelligent humans think.
 AI studying how human
 brain thinks
 learn,
 decide, and
 work while trying to solve a problem,

 using the outcomes of this study as a basis of developing intelligent

 What is Intelligence
Dictionary definition of Intelligence:
The ability to acquire, understand and apply knowledge, or ability to exercise
thought and reason.
Every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can in principle be
so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it.

The ability of a system to

Calculate, reason, perceive relationships and analogies,
learn from experience,
store and retrieve information from memory,
solve problems, comprehend complex ideas,
use natural language fluently,
classify, generalize, and adapt new situations.
What is Intelligence Composed Of?
The intelligence is composed of Jack
Copeland −
 Generalization Learning (Recognized human face)

 Reasoning (draw a conclusion, gives way human)

 Problem Solving (find x from data)

 Perception (What to you like to drink)

 Language Understanding (Understanding

language by following syntax)
 Learning − l
• The ability of learning is possessed by humans,
particular species of animals, and AI-enabled
systems.
• Auditory Learning
• It is learning by listening and hearing. For example, students
listening to recorded audio lectures.
• Episodic Learning
• To learn by remembering sequences of events that one has
witnessed or experienced. This is linear and orderly.
• Motor Learning
• It is learning by precise movement of muscles. For example,
picking objects, writing, etc.
 Learning − l
• Observational Learning
• To learn by watching and imitating others. For example, child
tries to learn by mimicking her parent.
• Perceptual Learning
• It is learning to recognize stimuli that one has seen before.
For example, identifying and classifying objects and
situations.
 Reasoning
 It is the set of processes that enable us to provide basis for judgement,
making decisions, and prediction.
 There are broadly two types −

Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning

It conducts specific observations to It starts with a general statement and

makes broad general statements. examines the possibilities to reach a
specific, logical conclusion.
Even if all of the premises are true in a If something is true of a class of things
statement, inductive reasoning allows in general, it is also true for all
for the conclusion to be members of that class.
Example − "Nita is a teacher. Nita is Example − "All women of age above
studious. Therefore, All teachers are 60 years are grandmothers. Shalini is
studious." 65 years. Therefore, Shalini is a
grandmother."
 Problem Solving
 The process in which one perceives and tries to
arrive at a desired solution from a present
situation by taking some path, which is blocked
by known or unknown hurdles.
Problem solving also includes decision making,
which is the process of selecting the best suitable
alternative out of multiple alternatives to reach
the desired goal.
 Perception
• It is the process of acquiring, interpreting,
selecting, and organizing sensory information.
• Perception presumes sensing. In humans,
perception is aided by sensory organs. In the
domain of AI,
• perception mechanism puts the data acquired by
the sensors together in a meaningful manner.
 Linguistic Intelligence
• It is one’s ability to use, comprehend, speak, and
write the verbal and written language. It is
important in interpersonal communication.
 What’s Involved in AI
• Let us now see the different fields of study within
AI −
Machine Learning
Computer Vision
Artificial neural network
Natural language processing
Robotics
Pattern recognition
Genetic Algorithm
Knowledge Management.
 Agent
An agent is anything that can perceive its
environment through sensors and acts upon that
environment through effectors.
 A human agent has sensory organs such as eyes, ears,
nose, tongue and skin parallel to the sensors, and
other organs such as hands, legs, mouth, for effectors.
 A robotic agent replaces cameras and infrared range
finders for the sensors, and various motors and
actuators for effectors.
 A software agent has encoded bit strings as its
programs and actions.
 Application of AI
Think about this. AI=Artificial + Intelligence
Artificial=non natural, Intelligence=Ability to Understand think and
learn.

 Earthquake
 Sunami
 Application of AI
Think about this.

 Avoid lot of accident

 Confession
It is possible that some sentences or some information were
included in these slides without mentioning exact references.
I am sorry for violating rules of intellectual property. When
I will have a bit more time, I will try my best to avoid such
things.
These slides are only for students in order to give them very
basic concepts about the giant, “Artificial Intelligence”, not
for experts.
Since I am not a network expert, these slides could have
wrong/inconsistent information…I am sorry for that.
Students are requested to check references and Books, or to
talk to Network engineers.