Nucleic Acids and

the Code of Life

z
 Nucleic acids get their name because they were first found in
z
the nuclei of cells. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) — the most
famous nucleic acid —is part of the chromosomes, which
contain the genes. And the genes are ultimately responsible
for the synthesis of proteins.
 DNA has two direct purposes: It must generate new DNA
(replication) so that new generations of cells will have the
information necessary to their survival. And it must generate
RNA (ribonucleic acid). The RNA is involved in the direct
synthesis of proteins, called translation. These proteins are
essential for the maintenance of life.
 z
Nucleotides: The Guts of DNA and
RNA
 Both DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides. A
nucleotide is a combination of a nitrogen base, a 5-carbon
sugar, and a phosphoric acid. There are five different bases
present in a nucleotide, and two different sugars.
 z

 The purines (adenine and guanine), composed of two fused

rings incorporating two nitrogen atoms in each ring and;
 The pyramidines (cytosine, thymine, and uracil), composed
of a single ring with two nitrogen atoms in the ring structure
 Adenine (A), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) occur in both
DNA and RNA. Thymine (T) is only found in DNA, whereas
uracil (U) only occurs in RNA.
z
 In 1953, Watson and Crick
z
worked out the three-dimensional
structure of DNA,
starting from X-ray diffraction
photographs taken by Franklin
and Wilkins.
They deduced that DNA is
composed of two strands wound
round each other to
form a double helix, with the
bases on the inside and the
sugar–phosphate backbones
on the outside.
 z
Tracing the Process: From Nucleoside
to Nucleotide to Nucleic Acid

 A nucleoside is a pyrimidine or purine base covalently bonded to a

sugar. In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose and so this is a
deoxynucleoside.There are four types of deoxynucleoside in DNA;
deoxyadenosine, deoxyguanosine, deoxythymidine and deoxycytidine.

 The combination of a nitrogen base with a 5-carbon sugar is a

nucleoside
 z
 The combination of a phosphoric acid with a nucleoside
produces a nucleotide.
 A nucleotide is base + sugar + phosphate covalently
bonded together.
 Nucleic acids form by joining nucleotides using the
same condensation reactions we’ve mentioned. This
condensation reaction involves the phosphate of one
nucleotide reacting with the alcohol group on carbon
atom number 3' of another nucleotide.
z
 Nucleic acids are responsible for storing and directing the
z
information our cells use for reproduction and growth.
They are large molecules found in the cell’s nucleus. The
genetic information is contained in the DNA, in terms of its
primary and secondary structure. As a cell divides and
reproduces, the genetic information in the cell is
replicated to the new cells, which must be done
accurately and precisely — no mistakes must be made.
RNA’s role is to transfer the genetic information found in
the DNA to the ribosomes, whereprotein synthesis occurs.
DNA and RNA allow us to live and function
 DNA and RNA in the grand scheme of life
z
 Both DNA and RNA are polymers composed of
nucleotide subunits. However, DNA is a much larger
molecule than RNA. DNA molecules typically have
molecular weights in the billions. The human genome
contains about 3 billion nucleotides.

There are three different types of RNA,

• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the most common: 75–80
percent occurs within the ribosomes of the cell.
• Transfer RNA (tRNA) accounts for 10–15 percent.
• Messenger RNA (mRNA) makes up the remainder.
 All three
z types are important to protein synthesis
— which occurs in the ribosomes, home of
ribosomal RNA (rRNA). The amino acids
necessary for protein synthesis are transferred to
the ribosomes by transfer RNA (tRNA). The
message instructing the ribosomes how to
assemble the protein travels from the DNA to the
ribosome via messenger RNA (mRNA). This
message tells the ribosome the sequence of
amino acids to make a specific protein.
 Information
z
metabolism provides a way to store and
retrieve the information that guides the development of
cellular structure, communication, and regulation.
Information is stored by the process of DNA replication.
Information is retrieved by the transcription of DNA into
RNA and the ultimate translation of the signals in the
mRNA into protein.
 z
DNA REPLICATION
 Each time a cell divides, each of its double strands of
DNA splits into two single strands. Each of these single
strands acts as a template for a new strand of
complementary DNA. As a result, each new cell has its
own complete genome. This process is known as DNA
replication.
TRANSCRIPTION
Transcription is the process by which DNA is copied
(transcribed) to mRNA, which carries the information needed for
protein synthesis. Transcription takes place in two broad steps.
First, pre-messenger RNA is formed, with the involvement of
RNA polymerase enzymes.
 TRANSLATION
z
 The mRNA formed in transcription is transported out of the nucleus, into
the cytoplasm, to the ribosome (the cell's protein synthesis factory). Here,
it directs protein synthesis. Messenger RNA is not directly involved in
protein synthesis − transfer RNA (tRNA) is required for this. The process
by which mRNA directs protein synthesis with the assistance of tRNA is
called translation.
 z
RECOMBINATION
 Recombination rearranges genetic information by breaking
and joining DNA

Homologous: Two DNA sequences that are very similar or

identical. Homologous recombination occurs between two genes
that have very similar or identical sequences.
Nonhomologous: Two DNA sequences that are very different.
Nonhomologous recombination can occur between two unrelated
genes.
 z

 Aligned: Recombination occurs between the same

genes and at the same location within each gene. Gene
order is not altered.
 Nonaligned: Recombination occurs between two
different genes. The order of genes is altered by
nonaligned recombination
 z CLONING
 Cloning is manipulating a specific piece of DNA so that it
can be used to generate multiple copies of itself or the RNA
and protein that it encodes.

SEQUENCING

 Sequencing is determining the sequential order of DNA

bases in a given piece of DNA.
 z
VITAMINS
 Vitamins are organic compounds that are required, in small
quantities, for normal metabolism. The term active form is used to
describe the structural form of the molecule, in this case vitamins,
that performs its function (exhibits activity) within the organism.

Water soluble vitamins include vitamin C and the B vitamins. Vitamins A,

D, E, and K comprise the other category, the fat-soluble vitamins. Water-
soluble vitamins tend to have more oxygen and nitrogen in their structure
than fat-soluble vitamins, which have significant hydrocarbon portions in
their structure. The majority of water-soluble vitamins either act as
coenzymes or are important in the synthesis of coenzymes. Fat-soluble
vitamins serve a variety of biochemical functions.
 z

 The body can easily eliminate an excess of the water-soluble

vitamins, normally in the urine. The bright yellow of the urine
of a person taking large doses of vitamin C attests to that
fact. Because the body does not store water-soluble
vitamins, continual replacement is necessary. The body can
store excess amounts of a fat-soluble vitamin in the body’s
fatty tissue, and therefore elimination is not very easy.
Unfortunately, this can lead to an accumulation of these
vitamins, sometimes to toxic levels. One should consider this
before consuming mega quantities of the fat-soluble vitamins
 z
To B or Not to B: B Complex Vitamins

 B vitamins — or B complex — comprise a number of

water-soluble vitamins that are found together in a
number of sources. Originally, this mixture was thought
to be only one vitamin (vitamin B). With the possible
exception of vitamin B6, these appear to be relatively
nontoxic
 z
Vitamin B1 (thiamine)
 Thiamine is important to carbohydrate metabolism. Like the
other B vitamins, the body does not store it. In addition,
prolonged cooking of food can destroy it. Once absorbed in
the body, thiamine is converted to a form that is biologically
active through the attachment of a pyrophosphate
(diphosphate) group to give thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP).
 z
Vitamin B1 (thiamine)
 A deficiency in thiamine leads to beriberi, which causes deterioration in
the nervous system. Beriberi was prevalent in regions where rice was
a major food source. Rice, particularly polished rice, is low in thiamine.
Using brown rice, which has more thiamine, alleviates this problem.
Nursing infants are particularly at risk when their mothers have a
thiamine deficiency. Many alcoholics also suffer from this condition
because many “foods” high in alcohol are particularly low in vitamins.

Good dietary sources of thiamine include liver, spinach,

green peas, navy and pinto beans, whole-grain cereals, and
most legumes.
 z
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
 Riboflavin is essential to the synthesis of flavin
mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide
(FAD).

No deficiency diseases are associated with riboflavin;

however, a deficiency does lead to burning and itchy eyes,
dermatitis, and anemia. Dietary sources of this vitamin
include soybeans, liver, milk, cheese and green leafy
vegetables. Riboflavin is stable during cooking, but is broken
down by light.
 z
Vitamin B3 (niacin)
 The term niacin applies to two compounds: nicotinic acid and
nicotinamide. Nicotinamide is part of the coenzymes NAD+ and
nicotinamide dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+). These coenzymes work
with a number of enzymes in catalyzing a number of redox processes in
the body. Niacin is one of the few vitamins that the body can synthesize.
The synthesis utilizes tryptophan and is not very efficient.

Pellagra is a niacin-deficiency disease. Symptoms include

loss of appetite, dermatitis, mental disorders, diarrhea, and
possibly death. There are many dietary sources for niacin,
including most meats and vegetables,
milk, cheese, and grains.
 z Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)
 This vitamin consists of three components: pyridoxine,
pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine. All three need to be converted
to pyridoxal phosphate, a form that is biologically active in
the organism
Avocados, chicken, fish nuts, liver, and bananas are
especially good food sources of vitamin B6. Heating
decreases its concentration in food.
There is no pyridoxine-deficiency disease known; however, low
levels can lead to irritability, depression, and confusion. Unlike
the other water-soluble vitamins, there is evidence that large
doses of vitamin B6 may lead to health problems. The
symptoms of excess vitamin B6 consumption include
irreversible nerve damage.
 z
Biotin
 Biotin is a coenzyme important to many carboxylation
reactions. Biotin is the carbon transporter in both lipid
and carbohydrate metabolism. Bacteria in the intestinal
track synthesize biotin in sufficient quantities to
minimize the chances for a deficiency. However,
antibiotics can inhibit the growth of these bacteria and
induce a deficiency. In these circumstances, the
symptoms include nausea, dermatitis, depression, and
anorexia. Biotin is stable to cooking.
 Folic acid
 Bacteriaz in the intestinal track also produce folic acid;
however, green leafy vegetables, dried beans, and liver are
also sources. Reduction of folic acid yields tetrahydrofolic
acid, the active form. Although cooking easily destroys the
compound, intestinal bacteria normally produce sufficient
quantities
Folic acid is critical to the prevention of malformations of the brain
(anencephaly) and spine (spina bifida). A deficiency of folic acid
affects the synthesis of purines — symptoms include gastrointestinal
disturbances and anemia. Pregnant women are normally advised to
take a vitamin high in folic acid to help in the normal development of
the fetus, especially the spine and brain. Sulfa drugs interfere with the
formation of folic acid by some pathogens via a form of competitive
inhibition.
 z
Pantothenic acid
 Pantothenic acid’s name derives from a Greek
word meaning “from everywhere.” As you might
expect, then, it has numerous sources, including
whole grains, eggs, and meat. Deficiency is
virtually unknown. The vitamin is not destroyed by
moderate cooking temperatures, but it is not
stable at high cooking temperatures.
 z
The wonders of vitamin B12
 Vitamin B12 is the only known natural organometallic compound.
It does not occur in higher plants, and apparently only bacteria
are capable of synthesizing it — bacteria who live in their hosts
in a symbiotic relationship. Unfortunately, higher animals
including human beings do not have these types of bacteria.
Thus, it is necessary to obtain vitamin B12 from food. The name
cyanocobalamine refers to the presence of cyanide. The cyanide
is an artifact of the isolation of the compound and is not naturally
present. Vitamin B12 is necessary to the formation of two
coenzymes: methylcobalamin and 5'-deoxyadenosylcobalamin.
 Pernicious
z anemia usually results from poor absorption of
vitamin B12. Normal stomach cells produce a glycoprotein that
aids in the absorption of the vitamin in the intestine. It is the
lack of this intrinsic factor that leads to the vitamin deficiency
and not the lack of the vitamin in the diet. Elderly people may
have difficulty in generating sufficient quantities of the intrinsic
factor, and strict vegetarians also may develop symptoms. The
symptoms of pernicious anemia include lesions on the spinal
cord leading to a loss of muscular coordination and
gastrointestinal problems. The blood contains large, fragile,
and immature red blood cells. Dietary sources include meat,
eggs, milk and cereals. This vitamin is stable to cooking.
 z
VITAMIN A
 Vitamin A is not a single compound — a number of
compounds are biologically active, that is they undergo
biological reactions within the organism. The parent
compound is 11-trans-retinol, found in milk and eggs. Vitamin
A is exclusive to animals. Vitamin A is especially important to
vision. Vitamin A also helps in the changes in the bone
structures that occur as an infant matures.
A deficiency in vitamin A begins with night blindness, followed
by other eye problems, which could lead to blindness. An
extreme deficiency may lead to xerophthalmia, inflammation of
the eyelids and eyes, which can cause infections and blindness.
 z

 Excessive dosages of vitamin A may lead to

acute toxicity, and as a fat-soluble vitamin, it is
not easily eliminated. Symptoms include nausea,
vomiting, blurred vision, and headaches. Large
doses have been linked to birth defects and
spontaneous abortions.
 z
Vitamin D

 Vitamin D is sometimes called the sunshine vitamin. It can

be produced in the body through the action of sunlight,
which is ultraviolet radiation. Individuals walking around
outside nude or semi-nude normally have very little trouble
with vitamin D deficiency. The rest of us, however, depend
on vitamin D-fortified foods, especially milk.
 z
 The body’s ability to absorb calcium and phosphorus is
tied to vitamin D. Teeth and bone have large amounts
of these two elements and are the first parts of the
body affected by a vitamin D deficiency. Osteomalacia,
a condition in which a softening of the bones may lead
to deformities, may also result. A vitamin D deficiency is
more serious in children than in adults because growth
requires larger quantities of calcium and phosphorus.
Persons with some portion of their skin routinely
exposed to sunlight seldom develop a deficiency
 z

 Excess vitamin D is toxic. It is not easy to

eliminate this fat-soluble vitamin.
Symptoms of excessive amounts of vitamin
D include nausea, diarrhea, kidney stones
and other deposits, and sometimes even
death.
 z
Vitamin E
 Vitamin E comes from a number of sources, vegetable oils,
nuts, whole grains, leafy vegetables, to name a few.
Deficiencies are rare except in individuals on a no-fat diet or
who, for medical reasons, cannot efficiency absorb fat. Cystic
fibrosis may interfere with fat absorption. Vitamin E serves as
an effective anti-oxidant. Anti-oxidants are necessary to
minimize the damage caused by oxidants present in the body
— many problems associated with aging are apparently due
to oxidants. Vitamin E may also help prevent cholesterol
deposits in the arteries.
 z
Vitamin K
 Vitamin K1 (Figure 10-12) is one of many compounds that
exhibit vitamin K activity and differ in the side-chains
attached to the ring system. Vitamin K is necessary to
produce the proenzyme prothrombin, which helps blood
clot. A vitamin K deficiency is uncommon because
intestinal bacteria normally produce sufficient quantities,
although several foods are also good sources, including
green leafy vegetables, cauliflower, broccoli, organ, milk,
soybeans, avocados, and bananas.
 z
Vitamin K
 Prolonged use of antibiotics can decrease the number
of these vitamin K producing bacteria and lead to a
reduction in vitamin K in the body. One symptom of a
deficiency is an increase in the time necessary to form
a blood clot, and such individuals are prone to develop
serious bruises from even minor injuries. Infants with a
deficiency have been known to die from brain
hemorrhage. Increasing the vitamin K intake of the
mothers decreases the likelihood of this occurrence.
 z
Vitamin C

 Vitamin C is another name for ascorbic acid

Dehydroascorbic acid also has vitamin C
activity. Vitamin C is water-soluble — thus the
body can readily eliminate excess, and large
doses are not toxic.
 z

 A deficiency in vitamin C leads to the disease scurvy, symptoms

of which include a weakening of the collagen — an important
protein in connective tissues such as ligaments and tendons.
Many foods contain vitamin C, especially plants and citrus fruits,
so it is easy to prevent scurvy. Many mammals (other than
humans) synthesize vitamin C from glucose. Cooking, especially
prolonged cooking, destroys vitamin C. Vitamin C is an
antioxidant. Like vitamin E, it helps prevent damage produced by
oxidants. It also helps in the absorption of iron, and keeps the
iron in the +2 state. Vitamin C helps convert some of the proline
in collagen C to hydroxyproline, which stabilizes the collagen
z

 HORMONES

 NUTRITION

 DIABETES MELLITUS

 OBESITY

 THE FEED FAST CYCLE