DIGITAL ENCODING TECHNIQUES

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 Introduction
Encoding
 Encoding organises the data into a form suitable for
transmission by a suitable type of signal along the
communication medium
 To send data by using signals, we must able to convert data
into signals.
 Types of signals:
 Digital
 Analog
 Types of data
 Digital
 Analog
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 Encoding Techniques
 Posibilities in encoding:
1. Digital data, digital signal
2. Analog data, digital signal
3. Digital data, analog signal
4. Analog data, analog signal

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 Terms
• Digital signaling
– Data source (digital/analog) encoded into digital
signal
– Data source g(t), which may be either digital or
analog, is encoded into a digital signal x(t).
Used to optimize use of the transmission medium.
•For example, the encoding may be chosen to
conserve bandwidth or to minimize errors.

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 Terms
• Analog signaling
– Data source (digital/analog) encoded into
constant-frequency signal (carrier signal)

The input signal m(t) may be analog or digital and is called the
modulating signal or baseband signal.
- The result of modulating the carrier signal is called the modulated
signal s(t).
- s(t) is a bandlimited(bandpass) signal. The spectrum of s(t) is
related to fc and is often centered on fc.
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 Terms
• Modulation
– Process of encoding source data onto a carrier signal
with frequency fc
– Involves operation on one or more of the three
characteristics of a carrier signal: amplitude,
frequency, and phase.
– The frequency fc of the carrier signal is chosen to be
compatible with the transmission medium being
used.

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 Signal Encoding Criteria
The following important factors determines how successful a
receiver will be in interpreting an incoming signal:
 Signal-to-noise ratio
 Data rate

 Bandwidth

 Encoding scheme

With other factors held constant, the following statements are true:
I.An increase in data rate increases bit error rate
II.An increase in SNR decreases bit error rate

III.An increase in bandwidth allows an increase in data rate

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 Digital Data-Digital Signal
Line Coding
• Is the process of converting digital data to digital
signals.
• Data are stored in comp. mem as sequences of bits.
• Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital
signal.
• At the sender, digital data are encoded into a digital
signal; at the receiver, the digital data are recreated
by decoding the digital signal.
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Line Coding and Decoding

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 Digital Data, Digital Signal
• In general, the equipment for encoding digital
data into a digital signal is less complex and less
expensive than digital-to-analog modulation
equipment.
• Digital signal
– Discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses
– Each pulse is a signal element
– Binary data encoded into signal elements

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 Factors Used to Compare Encoding Schemes
Following are primary factors to consider when selecting a line coding format:
Signal spectrum

 Good signal design should concentrate the transmitted power in the middle of

the transmission bandwidth

 With lack of high-frequency components, less bandwidth required

 Transfer function of a channel is worse near band edges

Transmission Voltage & Dc Components

 Over digital tx line, it’s more power efficient to encode binary data with

voltages that are equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity and symmetrically
balanced about 0 V.
 With no dc component, ac coupling via transformer possible, providing

excellent electrical isolation, reducing interference (eliminate physical

attachment of tx components)
Duty Cycle

 Describes the duration of a pulse per bit time

 In NRZ, the binary pulse is maintained for the entire bit time

 In RZ, the active time of the binary pulse is < 100% of the bit time

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 Factors Used to Compare Encoding Schemes
 Clocking
 To correctly interpret the signals received from the sender, the
receiver's bit intervals must correspond exactly to the sender's bit
intervals
 There is need to determine the beginning and end of each bit
position
 2 posible ways:
 synchronize transmitter and receiver either with an external clock or sync
mechanism expensive option)
 Use suitable encoding that provides self- synchronization mechanism that is
based on the transmitted signal e.g Manchester, differential manchester
 Self- sync is achieved if there are transitions in the signal that alert the
reciever to the beginning, middle, or end of the signal pulse.

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 Factors Used to Compare Encoding Schemes
 Build-in error detection
 It is desirable to have a built-in error-detecting capability
in the generated code to detect some of or all the errors that occurred during
transmission
 This will permit quick errors detecion
 Responsibility of data link control
 Signal interference and noise immunity
 Performance in the presence of noise differ with scheme

 Performance is usually expressed in terms of a BER.

 Cost and complexity

 The higher the signal rate to achieve a given data rate, the greater the

complexity the scheme and is costly

 Some codes require a signaling rate that is greater than the actual data

rate

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 Factors Used to Compare Encoding Schemes
 Baseline Wandering
• In decoding a digital signal, the receiver calculates a running
average of the received signal power. This average is called the
baseline
• The incoming signal power is evaluated against this baseline to
determine the value of the data element
• A long string of Os or Is can cause a drift in the baseline and make
it difficult for the receiver to decode correctly
• This drifting is called baseline wandering
• A good line coding scheme needs to prevent baseline wandering

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Classification of Digital to Digital Encoding

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 Types of Polar Encoding

1. Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)

2. Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZI)
3. Bipolar –AMI -Altenate Mark Inversion
4. Pseudoternary
5. Manchester
6. Differential Manchester
7. B8ZS (Commonly used in North America)
8. HDB3 (Commonly used in Europe and Japan) TCC E&I 16
 Terms
• Unipolar
– All signal elements (levels) are one side of
the time axis (positive or negative)
• Polar
– One logic state represented by positive voltage the other by negative voltage
• Bipolar (Multilevel Binary)
- uses three voltage levels, positive, negative, and zero. Voltage level for one data
element is at Zero, while voltage level for the other element alternates between
positive and negative voltages.
• Biphase
- Require at least one transition per bit time and may have as many as two
transitions.
• Data rate/Bit rate
– Rate of data transmission in bits per second
• Duration or length of a bit
– Time taken for transmitter to emit the bit
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 Terms
Signal Element vs. Data Element
Data Element
• A data element is the smallest entity that can
represent a piece of information: this is the bit.
Signal Element
• A signal element is the shortest unit (timewise) of
a digital signal.
- i.e data elements are what we need to send; signal elements
are what we can send. Data elements are being carried;
signal elements are the carriers.
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 Terms
• Signal/Modulation/pulse/Baud rate
– Rate at which the signal level changes
– Rep No. of signal elements per unit time
– Measured in baud = signal elements per second

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 RZ and NRZ codes
• RZ - vollages must return to zero within each bit time,
whereas NRZ codes do not necessarily do so.
• NRZ codes are simple and do not make large demands
on system bandwidth, but they can be problematic in
terms of c locking:
When strings of bits with the same value are sent,
clocking may be lost
• In contrast, the return to zero in each bit time of RZ
codes provides perfect clocking, but they extract a
bandwidth penalty.

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 Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
• Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits
• Voltage constant during bit interval
– no transition I.e. no return to zero voltage
• e.g. constant negative voltage for zero, constant
positive voltage for one
• More often, negative voltage for one value and
positive for the other

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 Nonreturn to Zero Inverted
• Nonreturn to zero
• Inverted on ones
• Constant voltage pulse for duration of bit
• Data encoded as presence or absence of signal
transition at beginning of bit time
• Transition (low to high or high to low) denotes
a binary 1
• No transition denotes binary 0
• An example of differential encoding

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NRZ

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 Differential Encoding
• Data represented by changes rather than levels
• More reliable detection of transition rather than level
• In complex transmission layouts it is easy to lose
sense of polarity

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 NRZ pros and cons
• Pros
– Easy to engineer
– Make good use of bandwidth
• Cons
– dc component
– Lack of synchronization capability
• Used for magnetic recording
• Not often used for signal transmission
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Types of Bipolar Encoding

PSEUDOTERNARY
PSEUDOTERNARY

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 Multilevel Binary
• Use more than two levels
• Bipolar-AMI
– zero represented by no line signal
– one represented by positive or negative pulse
– one pulses alternate in polarity
– No loss of sync if a long string of ones (zeros still a
problem)
– No net dc component
– Lower bandwidth
– Easy error detection
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 Pseudoternary
• One represented by absence of line signal
• Zero represented by alternating positive and
negative
• No advantage or disadvantage over bipolar-
AMI

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Bipolar-AMI and Pseudoternary

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 Trade Off for Multilevel Binary
• Not as efficient as NRZ
– Each signal element only represents one bit
– In a 3 level system could represent log23 = 1.58
bits
– Receiver must distinguish between three levels
(+A, -A, 0)
– Requires approx. 3dB more signal power for same
probability of bit error

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 Biphase
• Manchester
– Transition in middle of each bit period
– Transition serves as clock and data
– Low to high represents one
– High to low represents zero
– Used by IEEE 802.3
• Differential Manchester
– Midbit transition is clocking only
– Transition at start of a bit period represents zero
– No transition at start of a bit period represents one
– Note: this is a differential encoding scheme
– Used by IEEE 802.5

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Manchester Encoding

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Differential Manchester Encoding

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 Biphase Pros and Cons
• Con
– At least one transition per bit time and possibly two
– Maximum modulation rate is twice NRZ
– Requires more bandwidth
• Pros
– Synchronization on mid bit transition (self clocking)
– No dc component
– Error detection

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 Scrambling
 Biploar AMI encoding is suitable for long-distance
communication because:
Has narrow bandwidth requirements
Does not create a DC component
 Biploar AMI, however can experience a long sequence
of 0s which upsets the synchronization.
 Solution is to use a technique that provide syn without
increasing the number of bits. One solution is
scrambling.
• The objective is to avoid long sequences of zero level
line signals by introducing enough transitions to sync
and providing some type of error detection Capability
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 Scrambling
 Use scrambling to replace sequences that would produce
constant voltage
 Design goals:
• have no dc component
• have no long sequences of zero level line signal
• have no reduction in data rate
• give error detection capability
 Two common scrambling techniques:
• Bipolar with 8-zero substitution (B8ZS)
• High-density bipolar3-zero (HDB3)

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 B8ZS
• Bipolar With 8 Zeros Substitution
• Based on bipolar-AMI
• B8ZS substitutes eight consecutive zeros with
000VB0VB.
• V(Violation), is a non-zero voltage which means signal
have same polarity as the previous non-zero voltage. Thus
it is violation of general AMI technique.
• B(Bipolar), also non-zero voltage level which is in
accordance with the AMI rule (i.e.,opposite polarity from
the previous non-zero voltage).

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 B8ZS
• Rules for substituting the sequences:
 If octet of all zeros and last voltage pulse preceding was
positive encode as 000+-0-+
 If octet of all zeros and last voltage pulse preceding was
negative encode as 000-+0+-
• Causes two violations of AMI code that are unlikely to
occur as a result of noise
• Receiver detects and interprets as octet of all zeros

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 B8ZS - Example:
Data = 100000000

Note – Both figures (left and right one) are correct,

depending upon last non-zero voltage signal of
previous data sequence (i.e., sequence before current
data sequence “100000000”).
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 HDB3 - (High Density Bipolar 3)
 In this technique four consecutive zero-level voltages are
replaced with a sequence “000V” or “B00V”
 Rules for using these sequences depends on the number
of nonzero pulses after the last substitution:
 If the number of nonzero pulses after the last
substitution is odd, the substitution pattern will be
“000V”, this helps maintaining total number of nonzero
pulses even.
 If the number of nonzero pulses after the last
substitution is even, the substitution pattern will be
“B00V”. Hence even number of nonzero pulses is
maintained again.

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 HDB3 – Example
Data = 1100001000000000

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 Definition of Digital Signal Encoding Format (1)
i. Nonreturn to Zero-Level(NRZ-L)
- 0 = high level
- 1 = low level
ii. Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZ-I)
- 0 = no transition at beginning of interval
- 1 = transition at beginning of interval
iii. Bipolar –AMI
- 0 = no signal
- 1 = +ve or –ve, alternating for successive ones
iv. Pseudoternary
- 0 = +ve or –ve level, alternating for successive zeros
- 1 = no line signal

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 Definition of Digital Signal Encoding Format (2)
v. Manchester
- 0 = transition from high to low in middle of interval
- 1 = transition from low to high in middle of interval
vi. Differential Manchester
- Always a transition in middle of interval
- 0 = transition at beginning of interval
- 1 = no transition at beginning of interval
vii. B8ZS
- Same as bipolar AMI, except that any string of eight zeros is
replaced by a string with two code violations
viii. HDB3
- Same as bipolar AMI, except that any string of four zeros is
replaced by a string with one code violation

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Digital Data–to-Analog Signal Conversion
(Modulation) Techniques

• Some transmission media, such as optical fiber

and unguided media, will only propagate analog
signals.
• In such situations it is essential to convert digital
data to analog signal. Basic approach is shown
below

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 Digital –to-Analog Modulation Techniques

• This conversion is accomplished with the help

of special devices such as modem (modulator-
demodulator)
• Since modulation involves operations on one or
more of the three characteristics of the carrier
signal, namely amplitude, frequency and phase,
three basic encoding or modulation techniques
are available for conversion of digital data to
analog signals

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 Digital –to-Analog Modulation Techniques

• Three basic encoding (modulation techniques)

for transforming digital data into analog
signals:
– Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
– Frequency shift keying (FSK)
– Phase shift keying (PSK)
• There are many situations where ASK and PSK
techniques are combined together leading to
a modulation technique known as
Quardrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).

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Types of digital-to-analog modulation

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 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
• Binary values are represented by different
amplitudes of carrier
• Usually, one amplitude is zero
– i.e. presence and absence of carrier is used
• Susceptible to sudden gain changes
• Inefficient
• Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
• Used over optical fiber ASK
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 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

• Most common form is binary FSK (BFSK)

• Two binary values are represented by two
different frequencies (near carrier)
• Less susceptible to error than ASK
• Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
• High frequency-radio (3 – 30 MHz)
• Even higher frequency on LANs using coaxial
cable BFSK
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 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
• The Phase of the carrier wave is changed
according to the two binary inputs.
• Categorised as:
 Binary PSK (Two-level PSK)
 Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)
 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)

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 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Binary PSK (Two-level PSK)
– Also called phase reversal keying or 2PSK
– Difference of 180 phase shift is used between binary 1
and binary 0.
– This is regarded as the most robust digital modulation
technique and is used for long distance wireless
communication.
Differential PSK
– Phase shifted relative to previous transmission rather
than some reference signal
BPSK
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 Differential PSK

0 = signal burst of the same phase as previous signal burst

1 = signal burst of the opposite phase as previous signal
burst
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 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Quadrature PSK (QPSK)
• This technique is used to increase the bit rate, i.e
we can code two bits onto one single element.
• It uses four phases to encode two bits per symbol
• It has double data rate carrying capacity compare
to BPSK as two bits are mapped on each
constellation points.

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 M-ary Modulation
• Modern modulation techniques allow both
amplitude and phase (or frequency) of the RF
carrier to be varied.
• Because the envelope and phase provide two
degrees of freedom, such modulation techniques
map baseband data into four or more possible RF
carrier signals.
• Such modulation techniques are known as M-ary
modulation.

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 M-ary Modulation
• In M-ary modulation scheme, two or more bits
are grouped together to form symbols and one of
possible signals S1(t), S2(t), …, Sm(t) is
transmitted during each symbol period Ts.
• Normally, the number of possible signals is M =
2n, where n is an integer.
• Depending on whether the amplitude, phase or
frequency is varied, the modulation is referred to
as M-ary ASK, M-ary PSK or M-ary FSK,
respectively.

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 M-ary Modulation
• M-ary modulation technique attractive for use in
bandlimited channels, because these techniques
achieve better bandwidth efficiency at the expense
of power efficiency.
• For example, an 8-PSK technique requires a
bandwidth that is log28 = 3 times smaller than 2-PSK
(BPSK) system (log22)
• However, M-ary signalling results in poorer error
performance because of smaller distances between
signals
• commonly used M-ary signalling schemes are QPSK,
8-PSK, QAM

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 QPSK
• Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying is used for more
efficient use of bandwidth, where
s(t) = A cos (2πfct ) - for 00
= A cos (2πfct + 900) - for 01
= A cos (2πfct + 1800) - for 10
= A cos (2πfct + 2700) - for 11
• It uses four phases to encode two bits per
symbol
• Here phase is shifted in multiples of 90 0 as shown
in the constallation diagram next slide
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QPSK

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Quadrature PSK (QPSK)
• Provides a more efficient use by each signal
element representing more than one bit
• The technique, therefore, is used to increase the
bit rate, i.e we can code two bits onto one single
element.
• It has double data rate carrying capacity compare
to BPSK as two bits are mapped on each
constellation points.

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 8-PSK
• Here phase is shifted by 450

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 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
• Ability of equipment to distinguish small differences
in phase shifts in QPSK or 8PSK systems limits the
potential bit rate
• This can be improved by combining ASK and PSK
• This combined modulation technique is known
Quardrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
• Send two different signals simultaneously on same
carrier frequency (two copies of carrier, one shifted
90° and each carrier is ASK modulated) –
ASSIGNMENT: with the aid of phase(constallation)
diagram explain the QAM technique
• With QAM, higher data rate are possible
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 Bit rate and Baud rate
• Use of different modulation techniques lead
to different baud rates (number of signal
elements per second) for different values of
bit rates, which represents the numbers of
data bits per second
• The baud rate, in turn, implies different
bandwidth requirement of the medium used
for transmission of the analog signal

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 Bit rate and Baud rate

Table: Bit rate for the same baud rate for different modulation
techniques
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 Summary
Signal encoding techniques
 digital data, digital signal
• NRZ-L, NRZ-I, Unipolar NRZ, Bipolar –AMI,
Pseudoternary, Manchester, Differential
Manchester, B8ZS, HDB3
 digital data, analog signal
• ASK, FSK, PSK, QPSK, QAM

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 Individual Exercise
For the bit stream 101011100, sketch the resultant
waveform for the following line coding schemes:
i.Unipolar NRZ
ii.Polar NRZ-L
iii.NRZ-I
iv.Bipolar encoding
v.Machester encoding
vi.Differntial Manchester encoding

Solution next slide

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Solution

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 Q&A

The end.
Thank you!!

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