CHROMOSOMES

STRUCTURE AND  FUNCTION

  AKASH YADAV
 INTRODUCTION

 E. Strasburger in 1875 first discovered thread-like structures which  appeared

during cell division.

 These thread like structures were called chromosomes due to their affinity
for basic dyes.

 The term chromosome is derived from two Greek words; chrom =  colour,
soma=body.

 Chromosomes contributed to the division of cells and they carry the genes
which are the hereditary material.
 CHROMOSOME NUMBER

 The number of chromosomes  in a given species is generally 

constant.
 All the members of the  species ordinarily have  definite and generally
a  constant somatic and  gametic chromosome number.
 Somatic chromosome number  is the number of  chromosomes found
in  somatic cells of a species  and is represented by 2n.
 Generally somatic cells  contain two copies of each
 chromosome except the sex  chromosomes.
 Both the copies are  ordinarily identical
in  morphology, gene content and  gene order and hence known 
as homologous chromosomes.
 Gametic chromosome number  is exactly half of somatic
 chromosome number and is  represented by n.
CHROMOSOME NUMBER
 CHROMOSOME SIZE
• The size of the chromosome shows a remarkable
variation depending  upon the stage of cell division.

• longest and thinnest during interphase and hence not

visible under light  microscope.

• smallest and thickest during mitotic metaphase.

• Chromosome
size is not proportional to the number of genes
present  on the chromosome.
 CHROMOSOME MORPHOLOGY
• The outer covering or sheath of  a chromosome is known as  pellicle,
which encloses the  matrix.
• Within the matrix lies the  chromatin.
• Flemming introduced the term  chromatin in 1879.
• The chromosome morphology  changes during cell division and  mitotic
metaphase is the most  suitable stage for studies on  chromosome
morphology.
• In mitotic metaphase  chromosomes, the following  structural
features can be seen  under the light microscope.
1. Chromatid
2. Centromere
3. Telomere
4. Secondary constriction
5. Chromomere
6. Chromonema
7. Matrix
 Chromatid

• Each metaphase chromosome

appears to be longitudinally
divided into two identical parts
each of which is called
chromatid.
• Chromatids of a chromosome
appear to be joined together at a
point known as centromere.
• Two chromatids making up a
chromosome are referred to as
sister chromatids.
• The chromatids of homologous
chromosomes are known as non-
sister chromatids.
 Centromere:
• The region where two sister chromatids appear to be joined during mitotic
metaphase is known as centromere
• It generally appears as  constriction and hence called  primary constriction.
• The centromere consists of two disk shaped bodies called kinetochores.

• Depending on position of the  centromeres, chromosomes can be  grouped as:

a) Metacentric: Centromere is located  exactly at the centre

of  chromosome, Such chromosomes  assume ‘V’ shape at anaphase.
b) Submetacentric: The centromere is  located on one side of the centre  point such
that one arm is longer  than the other. These chromosomes  become ‘J’ or ‘L’ shaped
at anaphase.
c) Acrocentric: Centromere is located  close to one end of the chromosome  and thus
giving a very short arm and  a very long arm. These chromosomes  acquire ‘ J’ shape
or rod shape  during anaphase.
d) Telocentric: Centromere is located  at one end of the chromosome so  that the
chromosome has only one  arm. These chromosomes are ‘I”  shaped or
rod shaped.
 Telomere

• The two ends of chromosomes are known as telomeres.

• They are highly stable and do not fuse or unite with telomeres of other
chromosomes due to polarity effect.

• Any broken end of a chromosome is unstable and can join with a piece of
any other chromosome.
 Secondary constriction

• The constricted or narrow region other

than that of centromere is called
secondary constriction.
• The chromosomes having
secondary  constriction are
known as satellite  chromosomes
or sat chromosomes.
• Chromosomal end distal to the
secondary  constriction is known
as satellite.
 Chromonema

• A chromosome consists of two chromatids 

and each chromatid consists of thread like 
coiled structures called chromonema (plural 
chromonemata).

• The term chromonema was coined by

Vejdovsky in 1912.

• The chromonemata form the gene bearing

portion of chromosomes.
 Chromomere

• In some species like maize, rye etc.

chromosomes  in pachytene stage of meiosis
show small bead  like structures called
chromomeres.

• The distribution of chromomeres in

chromosomes  is highly characteristic and
constant.

• bands in  the giant salivary gland

chromosomes.

• Chromomeres are regions of tightly folded

DNA.
 Matrix

• The mass of acromatic material which 

surrounds the chromonemata is called 
matrix.

• The matrix is enclosed in a sheath which is 

known as pellicle.

• Both matrix and pellicle are non genetic 

materials and appear only at
metaphase,  when the nucleolus
disappears.
 Karyotype and Ideogram

• “the characteristic features by which a set

of  chromosomes of a species is identified”.
• Generally, karyotype is represented by 
arranging the chromosomes in descending 
order of size, keeping their centromeres in
the  same line.
• The karyotype of a species can be
represented  diagrammatically showing all
the morphological  features of
chromosomes.
• Such a diagram is known as
ideogram or  ideotype.
 SPECIAL TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES
• Some tissues of certain organisms contain chromosomes which differ 
significantly from normal chromosomes in terms of either morphology 
or function,Such chromosomes are referred to as special chromosomes.

The following are included under this category:

1. Giant chromosomes or polytene chromosomes:-

These were  first discovered by E. G. Balbiani in 1882 in Dipteran salivary

glands  and hence commonly called salivary gland chromosomes.
• These chromosomes replicate repeatedly but the daughter chromatids
do not separate from one another and the cell also does not divide.
• This phenomenon is known as endomitosis or endoreduplication.
• It results in the formation of many stranded giant chromosomes known  Their
size is 200 times or more than the normal somatic chromosomes
(autosomes) and very thick.
• Hence they are known as giant chromosomes.
GIANT CHROMOSOME
2. Lamp brush chromosomes:- 
These were first observed by W. Flemming  in 1882 and were described in detail in
oocytes of sharks by Rukert in  1892.
• They occur at diplotene stage of meiotic prophase in oocytes of all
animal species.
• Since they are found in meiotic prophase, they are present in the form  of
bivalents in which the maternal and paternal chromosomes are held  together
by chiasmata at those sites where crossing over has previously  occurred.
• The axis of each homologue consists of a row of granules or  chromomeres,
each of which have two loop like lateral extensions, one  for each chromatid.
• Thus each loop represents one chromatid of a chromosome and is
composed of one DNA double helix.
• One end of each loop is thinner than other which is known as thickend.
Lamp brush chromosomes:- 
3. Accessory chromosomes:-

      In many species some chromosomes are  found in addition to

normal somatic chromosomes.
• These extra chromosomes are called accessory chromosomes
or B-
chromosomes or supernumerary chromosomes.
• These chromosomes are broadly similar to normal somatic
chromosomes  in their morphology, but have some peculiar
functional aspects.
• For instance, presence of several such chromosomes often
leads to  reduction in vigour and fertility in males.
• These chromosomes are generally smaller in size than the
normal
somatic complement.
  Accessory chromosomes:-

  
4. Isochromosomes:- 
         An isochromosome is the one in which two arms are  identical with each
other in gene content and morphology.

• Such a chromosome is in assense a reverse duplication with entromeres

separating the two arms.

• Every isochromosome is metacentric. The attached ‘x’ chromosome of

Drosophila is a classical example of an isochromosome. However its
origin is uncertain.

• There is no evidence that isochromosomes had any evolutionary

significane.
 Isochromosomes:- 
5. Allosomes / sex chromosomes:- 

        Chromosomes differing in morphology  and number in male and

female are called allosomes.

• They are responsible for determination of sex.

• Eg: X and Y chromosomes in human beings and Drosophila.

• Chromosomes which have no relation with determination of sex

and  contain genes which determine somatic characters of
individuals are  called autosomes and are represented by letter ‘A’.
Allosomes / sex chromosomes:- 
    
THANK YOU