ESSENTIAL

ACADEMIC WRITING
FRANCIS NEARY
FRANCIS.NEARY@EDUCOGLOBAL .COM      
 Developing academic literacy

•As a professional-crucial to write well.

•Developing an awareness of the epistemology
(theory of knowledge of subject).
•Does not require unique talent/ outstanding ability.
•Everyone has basic skills necessary to write well
A            pyramid of skills-Bloom’s Taxonomy(1956)
5 Ws & H to be considered:
•Who?    Who is this writing intended for?
•What?  What is the intent of the document?
•When?  How soon does it need to be submitted?
•Why?   For what reason is it being written?
•Where? Where is the document going?
• How?    How will the document be distributed?

               There are 5 steps in the writing process:

• Prewriting
• Drafting
• Revising
• Editing
• Presenting
Writing styles

Writing clearly & persuasively 

is a valuable skill

•  Descriptive:  Portrayal of the main features: “Describe…………..”

• Analytical: Stating a point, providing evidence, contrasting this with other evidence, drawing
logical conclusions. “Analyse and discuss…………”

•  Anecdotal: Personal experience of self/others.

•  Empirical/evidence-based: Scientifically verified & published.

 Writing at 3rd level
Don’t make the mistake of thinking that graduate level writing
means using complex English & long words. 

e.g. ‘It is intuitive, therefore, that the fundamental dichotomy in theory and

practice is inevitably exacerbated and irrevocably confounded by the
underlying quixotic nature of medical lecturers’.                      
 no, no, no!  
All you are saying, obtusely, is: ‘‘it seems obvious that the theory practice gap
is always going to be made worse, and become utterly confused, by
medical lecturers who don’t live in the real medical world’.     
Clear, simple writing is best!
 Clarity of expression
•Good academic writing = clear English, correct spelling, grammar &
punctuation.  
•Your writing style must not be colloquial.  
   e.g. ‘When we done the obs and lots of walking with him, he was
well chuffed’.    (OUCH!)
The use of English must be professional:      
e.g. 'After performing routine observations for blood pressure and
pulse, (to check the patient was not tachycardic or hypotensive), we
were able to help the patient to mobilise.  He was able to walk for a
significant distance and was extremely pleased with his
achievement.'
 Coherence

•Must be logical - make sense.

•You will be judged on coherence - if it is intelligible & ‘holds together’.  

•Put information down logically, so that the sentences connect together in a way
that makes sense. 

•You should spend time rearranging the main points until they are in logical
order. 

Writing a paper is not only a matter of gathering and presenting information, it is an

exercise in comprehension and critical analysis.
 SOME Rules of academic writing
•An academic text not a narrative-it is an argument.

•Formal, logical, cautious & unemotional language.

•No slang, jargon, personal anecdotes, colloquialisms, exclamation marks &

contractions (‘e.g. can’t’).
•Clear, succinct writing.

• Make your claims tentative rather than definite - it’s unlikely that you’ve reached
the only possible conclusion!  
    Words which signal tentativeness include: may; might; possibly; in some
instances; often; in many cases 
•A  % of the overall mark will be awarded for clear, accurate writing & referencing
& the converse also true.
 SOME Rules of academic writing
• No 1st person (I and my).
• 3rd person only–
     ‘this writer’  believes that’…          ‘this student’s experience has
been’…      It is believed…      Many researchers have
noted…      Some writers have stated..      The research
suggests…      The evidence indicates...        It will be argued that …
   This essay will critically examine the  process leading to…. 
 Primary & Secondary Sources
•Where possible, use original/primary sources – e.g. Benner
(1984)
•When this is not possible & you are using a secondary source,
you should use the term ‘cited by’ in text followed by the
reference in which it is quoted                                             e.g. 
   'Fraser (1990), cited by Walsh (1998), suggests that there is no
empirical evidence to  support the ‘activities of living ‘model of
nursing.' 
•‘Times New Roman’ script, size 12 font. (we will look at this closer!)

• Double-spaced between lines.

• One side of page only & number pages.

• 3 cm. margins at top, bottom, right & left of page. 
• Word Count: all words from beginning of introduction to end of 
conclusion. 
• Title Page, References List & Appendices not included in word
count. 
•Penalties for under/exceeding word limit.
• Assignments must be submitted on/before stated date, unless
a valid, written explanation is given to Program Manager  (NOT me!
No, no, no! Nope! No way! NOKEY Dokey!). 

• A late submission form must be completed by the student. 

• If a student is ill, a medical certificate must be provided. 
• Work submitted more than one week late without a
negotiated reason, will not receive a mark greater than ??% and
may have to re-sit the exam. 
•If you chose to omit any words from a quotation, use three spaced
dots ... to indicate the omission.
•If you wish to point out an error in a quotation, follow the error
with (sic). 
•Watch your apostrophes!
-e.g. The accountant’s role, nurses’ responsibilities.
•Similar sounding but different meaning:
    discreet/discrete     there/their    than/then
Critiquing:  Usually, your critique follows your summary of the original. The
reader can then appreciate your views about the validity of other writers'
ideas.  Being critical

•As an academic writer, you are expected to be critical of the sources that you
use. 

•This essentially means questioning what you read and not necessarily
agreeing with it,  just because it has been published. 

•Can require you to identify problems with a writer's arguments/methods, or

perhaps to refer to other people's criticisms.

• Constructive criticism suggests ways in which a piece of research/writing

could be improved.
Use a dictionary/computer grammar & ‘spellcheck’.
But....be cautious with your ‘spellchecker’!  

"I have a spelling checker,  

it came with my PC,  
it plainly marks four my revue,  
mistakes I cannot sea,  
I've run this poem threw it,  
I'm sure your pleased to no,   
its letter perfect in it's weigh,   
my checker tolled me so!"
•Proof reading is essential before submitting your assignment (unless
suicide is actually your true intention!)

•A fresh eye is good – friend/relative. 

•Give yourself enough time to write your assignments.   Start as

early as you can. 

•If you are aware that you have difficulties in academic writing,
because of dyslexia/any other problem, please approach the
Program Manager/Lecturer asap. 
  Every assignment must be supported  by relevant literature (i.e.
evidence based).  Preferably within the past decade (10  yrs.) unless a
seminal work
   1,000's of journals/references available.   Many are on-line or
available here in the library.
•vast majority have a specialist focus.
•some aimed at local/national market, others aimed at
international market.
•Other sources of literature:
• Abstracts
• Books
• Case reports
• Theses/dissertations – MSc. MA, PhD.
•Journal articles that undergo peer review/ ‘referee’
process, in which experts examine them for quality &
validity - a peer-reviewed journal. 
•Peer reviewed = academic rigour.
 Literature-showing knowledge & understanding

•Using database & literature searching skills to identify appropriate literature. 

•Able to identify & use a wide range of sources of information. 

• Demonstrate that you have read widely & can provide a good variety of
references to support points that you are trying to make.
  
•Able to show that you have a sound understanding of the available literature
on the subject, by using references to support every piece of theory that you
present.
 Use of literature & referencing

Provide examples from the literature first& reference these before 

making your own comments/describing your own reflections. 

e.g. – poor: 
‘Communication in nursing is the most important thing of all.  When
this student approaches the patients on the ward, she is careful to
make sure that she establishes eye contact first and holds their hand to
show that she cares about them.  Non-verbal communication is just as
important as verbal communication’.
better:
‘Many authors, such as Burnard (2003) and Kemp & Smith(2004), agree that
communication is the most important therapeutic skill in nursing.  However, Brown
(2005), emphasizes that nurses must appreciate that non-verbal communication, through
eye contact and touch particularly, is an essential pre-requisite to establishing a rapport
and trusting relationship with patients, before verbal communication commences. In this
student’s own experience on her recent placement on a surgical ward, she found that
patients responded positively to her (when she wanted to give them information about
their operations), if she established eye contact first and also reached out to touch their
arm or hold their hand’.
 Referencing

    Harvard System of Referencing   (and MUCH, MUCH MORE ON THIS LATER!) :

•  Alphabetical order – by author’s surname

• Names & dates cited in the text & then listed at the end.
• Year of publication in brackets after the author’s name.
• Titles of books/journal names in  italics.
 Referencing within the Text

•Give the surname of the author, followed by the year of

publication  e.g. - One researcher, (Ensign 2006), found
that………….
•Two writers – Holloway & Jones (2005) believe that….

Three or more writers - give the surname of the first author

followed by et al. e.g. Campbell et al. (2001).  All the authors’
names must be given in the reference list
 Referencing a journal article in the References List
    Must include: 

•Author(s) surname, followed by initials.  

•Year of publication, in brackets.
•Title of the article.
•Title of the journal, in capitals and in italics. 
•Volume or series number. Edition number - only if each issue is
numbered separately. 
•The number of the first and last pages of the article.
      Ensign J. (2006) Perspectives and experiences of prolonged excavation
sites. Journal of Advanced Archaeology, 54, (6)  647-652
 Referencing a book in the References List
Include the following:
•Author(s)’ surname, followed by initials.  Year of publication in brackets.

•Full title of the book, Capitalised, in italics.

•Edition of work, if more than one edition. Volume number, if more than one
volume.

•Name of publisher. 

•Town/city of publication. 
e.g.: Burns T. & Sinfield S. (2008) Essential Study Skills: The Complete Guide to
Success at University. Sage: London
                                       Quoting in text 

•Froman (2008) believes that nursing is a theory- driven, scientifically based

profession, that is actualised through clinical practice (paraphrasing)
•Page number & double quotation marks when
   directly quoting  e.g. Wynd (2003:251) stated that “today’s profession of
nursing is evolving as a valuable public service” (verbatim)

•Quotations of 2/more lines must be indented & single-spaced: 

      The more skilled the nurse becomes in perceiving and empathising with the lives of
others, the more knowledge or understanding will be gained of alternative modes of
perceived reality.                       (Carper 1992: 219).
 Use of literature-showing knowledge & understanding

• Direct quotes should be used sparingly, as they involve little

mental processing. 

   e.g.  According to Johnson (1990), nursing is:       "…an external

regulatory force that acts to preserve the organisation and integration of the
patient’s behaviour at the highest possible level under those conditions in
which the behaviour constitutes a threat to physical or social health or in
which illness is  found. "                   (Johnson 1990:29)
 Use of literature-showing knowledge & understanding (cont.)

•A better approach – paraphrasing -involves more

interpretation.                                    
Choose a linking word between the authoryou are citing & a
summary of what was said:  
e.g. ‘Jones (2004)
defines/explains/believes/suggests/indicates/argues/states…’
•Simply a statement –’states’, a
suggestion- ‘suggests’,  personal belief-’believes’, an argument-
‘maintains’ or ‘argues’. 
 References List
Burns T. & Sinfield S. (2008) Essential Study Skills: The Complete Guide to Success at University. Sage:
London.

Bysshe J. (2006) Guidelines on Academic Writing for ThamesValley University, TVU Press
.
Campbell T., Draper S., Reid J. & Robinson L. (2001) Themanagement of constipation in
people with advanced cancer.International Journal of Palliative Nursing 79, (3), 110-119. 

Ensign J. (2006) Perspectives and experiences of homelessyoung people. Journal of

Advanced Nursing, 54, (6)  647-652

Holloway S. & Jones V. (2005) The importance of skin careand assessment. British Journal
of Nursing 14, (22) 11721176

Johnson A. (2003). Essence of caring for a person dying. Nursing and Health

Sciences, 5, 133-138  
 Plagiarism
• Also referred to as ‘Literary theft’ & is unacceptable. 

•Plagiarism is the use of ideas, quotations, pieces of text, pictures,

tables, graphs/other work, without referring to original writer .  

• Contravenes every University's examination regulations &

regarded as very serious offence.
• Every piece of course work submitted requires a signed form to
confirm that the work is your own.

•Plagiarism can be intentional or accidental!!

 Plagiarism
Academic Integrity & Intellectual Property
•Academic integrity is respect for the intellectual community in which you are
participating as a student & the standards governing it.  
   
•This means that you are accountable for the honesty and the quality of the work
that you submit.
•The rights of intellectual property must be respected by properly acknowledging
the original author’s ownership of any words, phrases & ideas that are used in
academic writing.

•Plagiarism in writing is the incorrect use of source material. Whether intentional

or not, failing to give credit for words, ideas or concepts that you get from any
source, including your own previously submitted work, is plagiarism.
As a student, it is your responsibility to know and understand the University’s
policies on academic fraud.The rules apply whether the offence is intentional or
not.  

Plagiarism comes in many forms:

•Using an author’s words/ideas without proper reference 
•Failing to put quotation marks around words taken from a source. 
•Falsifying/inventing information or data 
•“Cutting and pasting” from the Internet 
Avoiding plagiarism requires 2 skills:
1. using source material correctly, 
2. referencing that material. 
•Any information that you take from another source must be properly referenced,
whether it is from a book, a journal or from class notes or lectures.