Unit-1

Control Surveying

Present by
S.SEKAR,AP/CIVIL

1
 Introduction to triangulation
• “Triangulation consists of a series of connected triangles which adjoin or
overlap each other, angles being measured from determined fixed stations.
Triangulation reduces the number of measures that need to be taped and for
this reason is often a preferred method of survey. A known base-line
measurement is required.”

• TRIANGULATION – A method of surveying in which the stations are points on

the ground at the vertices of a chain or network of triangles. The angles of the
triangles are measured instrumentally and the sides are derived by
computation from selected sides or bases, whose lengths are obtained by
direct measurement on the ground or by computation from other triangles.

• Triangulation is a surveying technique in which unknown distances between

stations may be determined by trigonometric applications of a triangle or
triangles.
• In triangulation, one side is called the baseline and at least two interior angles
of the triangle must be measured.
2
• If all 3 interior angles are measured, accuracy of the calculated distances is
increased and a check provided against any measurement error.
Triangulation network

3
Principle of triangulation

4
 Geodetic triangulation (cont…)

The recommended length of a base line is usually one sixth to one fourth  of  that
 of  the  sides  of  the  principal triangles.
5
TRIANGULATION STATION – A marked point on the earth whose position is
determined by triangulation.
 Geodetic triangulation
• Stations will be far apart.

• Need to consider the shape and size of the earth. WHY????

• Involve a series of triangles called “triangulation system or network” to

complete the control of a selected area

• Control is carried from one known base line through several triangles
before another base line is/must be established or checked into.

• Tighter control is obtained by using a series of quadrilaterals, requiring

three other stations to be visible from each station instead of the two
necessary when using triangles. 6
 types of triangulation

• Two principal types: continuous and chain

 CONTINUOUS TRIANGULATION
Advantages:
 More accurate
 Easier for topographers

 CHAIN TRIANGULATION
Advantages:
 Easier to adjust before 1950
 Less costly
 Observed quickly

 Chains are the basis of most world mapping, but are now obsolete.
 They form grid-iron frame often running north-south and east-west and about 160- 7

250km apart.
 Classification of triangulation system
 Primary triangulation (First order)
 Average length of sides of triangles is 50km
 Angles less than 40 degrees must be avoided (to ensure well-conditioned
triangles).

 Secondary triangulation (Second order)

 Consist of simple homogeneous network of well conditioned triangles
with sided averaging 12km and connected to primary stations
 There should rarely be more than 10 secondary stations and 15
secondary triangles within a primary triangle.
 Angle greater than 150 and less than 30 degrees should be avoided.

 Tertiary triangulation (Third order)

 Sides average 5-8km and generally points are fixed by countersection,
resection or intersection. 8
 Very often tertiary points include main and intermediate points.
Classification of triangulation system
(cont…)

• Primary (First-order) triangulation is used to determine the shape and size of the
earth or to cover a vast area like a whole country with control points to which
secondary triangulation system can be connected.

• Second-order triangulation system consist of a network within a first-order

triangulation.
• It is used to cover areas of the order of a region, small country or province

• Third-order triangulation is a framework fixed within and connected to a second-

order triangulation system.
• It serves the purpose of furnishing the immediate control for detailed engineering
and location surveys.

9
Classification of triangulation system
(cont…)

10
 Triangulation figures and
layouts
• The basic figures used in triangulation networks are the triangle, braced or
geodetic quadrilateral and the polygon with a central station.

11
 Triangulation layouts

• The triangles in a triangulation system can be arranged in a number of

ways:

1. Single chain of triangles

2. Double chain of triangles
3. Braced quadrilaterals
4. Centered triangles and polygons
5. A combination of the above

12
 1. Single chain of triangles

• Is rapid and economic due to its simplicity of sighting only four other
station and does not involve observations of long diagonals.
• Simple triangles of a triangulation system provide only one route through
which distances can be computed and hence does not provide any checks
on the accuracy of observations.

13
 2. Double chain of triangles

• This arrangement is used for covering the larger width of a belt.

• The system has disadvantages of single chain of triangles system.

14
 3. Braced quadrilaterals

• A triangulation system consisting of figures containing four corner

stations and observed diagonals.
• The triangles are overlapping.
• This system is treated to be the strongest and the best
arrangement of triangles, and it provides a means of computing
the lengths of the sides using different combinations of sides and
angles.
• Most of the triangulation systems use this arrangement.

15
 4. Centered triangles and
polygons
• A triangulation system which consists of figures containing interior stations
in triangle and polygon.
• Is generally used when vast area in all directions is required to be covered.
• The centered figures generally are quadrilaterals, pentagons, or hexagons
with central stations.
• Though this system provides checks on the accuracy of the work, generally
it is not as strong as the braced quadrilateral arrangement.

16
 Layout of primary triangulation
• Two types of frameworks of primary triangulation are provided for a large
country to cover the entire area:

1. Grid iron system

2. Central system

17
 1. Grid iron system
• In this system, the primary triangulation is laid
in series of chains of triangles, which usually
run roughly along the meridians (north-south)
and along perpendiculars to the meridians
(east-west), throughout the country.

• The distance between two such chains may

vary from 150-250km.

• The area(s) between the parallel and

perpendicular series of primary triangulation
are filled by the secondary and tertiary
triangulation systems.

18
 2. Central system
• In this system, the whole area is covered by a network of primary
triangulation extending in all directions from the initial triangulation figure
ABC, which is generally laid at the centre of the country.
• This system is generally used for the survey of an area of moderate extent.

19
 Criteria for selection of the layout of triangles

• The under mentioned points should be considered while deciding

and selecting a suitable layout of triangles.

1. Simple triangles should be preferably equilateral.

2. Braced quadrilaterals should be preferably approximate
squares.
3. Centered polygons should be regular.
4. The arrangement should be such that the computations
can be done through two or more independent routes.
5. The arrangement should be such that at least one route
and preferably two routes form well conditioned triangles.

20
 Criteria for selection of the layout of
triangles (cont…)
6. No angle of the figure, opposite a known side should be small,
whichever end of the series is used for computation.
7. Angles of simple triangles should not be less than 45°, and in the case
of quadrilaterals, no angle should be less than 30°. In the case of
centered polygons, no angle should be less than 40°.
8. The sides of the figures should be of comparable lengths. Very long
lines and very short lines should be avoided.
9. The layout should be such that it requires least work to achieve
maximum progress.
10. As far as possible, complex figures should not involve more than 12
conditions.

It may be noted that if a very small angle of a triangle does not fall
opposite the known side it does not affect the accuracy of 21
triangulation.
 Well conditioned triangles
• The accuracy of a triangulation system is greatly affected by the
arrangement of triangles in the layout and the magnitude of the angles in
individual triangles.

• The triangles of such a shape, in which any error in angular measurement

has a minimum effect upon the computed lengths, is known as well-
conditioned triangle.

22
 Strength of figure
• The strength of figure is a factor to be considered in establishing a
triangulation system to maintain the computations within a desired
degree of precision.

• It plays also an important role in deciding the layout of a triangulation

system.

23
 ROUTINE OF TRIANGULATION
SURVEY
• The routine of triangulation survey, broadly consists of
(a) field work, and (b) computations.

• The field work of triangulation is divided into the following operations

:

i. Reconnaissance
ii. Erection of signals and towers
iii. Measurement of base line
iv. Measurement of horizontal angles
v. Measurement of vertical angles
vi. Astronomical observations to determine the azimuth of the lines.
24
 Reconnaissance
• Reconnaissance is the preliminary field inspection of the entire area to be
covered by triangulation, and collection of relevant data.
• Since the basic principle of survey is working from whole to the part,
reconnaissance is very important in all types of surveys. It requires great skill,
experience and judgment.
• The accuracy and economy of triangulation greatly depends upon proper
reconnaissance survey. It includes the following operations:
1. Examination of terrain to be surveyed.
2. Selection of suitable sites for measurement of base
lines.
3. Selection of suitable positions for triangulation
stations.
4. Determination of intervisibility of triangulation
stations.
5. Selection of conspicuous well-defined natural points 25

to be used as intersected points.

 Reconnaissance (cont…)
• Reconnaissance may be effectively carried out if accurate topographical
maps of the area are available.
• Help of aerial photographs and mosaics, if available, is also taken.
• If maps and aerial photographs are not available, a rapid preliminary
reconnaissance is undertaken to ascertain the general location of
possible schemes of triangulation suitable for the topography.
• Later on, main reconnaissance is done to examine these schemes.
• The main reconnaissance is a very rough triangulation.
• The plotting of the rough triangulation may be done by protracting the
angles.
• The essential features of the topography are also sketched in.
• The final scheme is selected by studying the relative strengths and cost
to various schemes.

26
 Ground reconnaissance
• This includes the following:
i. Testing and determination of the visibility of all rays.
ii. Final selection and marking of stations.
iii. Specifying of type and dimensions of beacons
iv. Observing of sufficient directions, vertical angles to plot the
scheme and enable stations to be reidentified.
v. Recording of means of access and availability of beacon
material.
vi. *NB During reconnaissance sights are cleared along proposed
lines and flags are erected.
vii. Reconnaissance ladders can be essential in the case of sights
for elevated beacons.
viii. Lamps can be used to test lines of sight in poor visibility.
ix. Sites are marked by a peg or stone in the ground covered by a
stone cairn, a paint mark on the rock site with cairn. 27
 Reconnaissance (cont…)
• For reconnaissance the following instruments are generally employed:

1. Small theodolite and sextant for measurement of angles.

2. Prismatic compass for measurement of bearings.
3. Steel tape.
4. Aneroid barometer for ascertaining elevations.
5. Heliotropes for ascertaining intervisibility.
6. Binocular.
7. Drawing instruments and material.
8. Guyed ladders, creepers, ropes, etc., for climbing trees.

28
 Determination of intervisibility of
triangulation stations
• The rule for intervisibility between proposed status A, B is defined by the
equation

Where
h – height of point on light ray
h1 – height of A
h2 – height of B
d1 – distance in km of point from A
d2 – distance in km of point from B

29