WELD

TESTING
DESTRUCTIVE & NON-DESTRUCTIVE
 DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
• These can be divided into two parts,
• Tests capable of being performed in the workshop.
• Laboratory tests.
– microscopic-macroscopic , chemical and corrosive.
 REASONS
• Defects occur during welding which affect the
quality and hardness of the plate
• Other defects occur through lack of knowledge
of and skill of the welder
• For the training of welders

WORKSHOP TESTS
TENSILE BENDING
IMPACT HARDNESS
FATIGUE CRACKING
 TENSILE
• Material is sectioned and
edges rounded of to
prevent cracking.
• Punch marks are made to
see elongation.
• Tensile testing is one way of evaluating a weld’s strength
and ability to withstand loading.
• Cross-weld, or cross-joint, tensile testing is most
commonly used to evaluate the strength of butt-joint welds
joining the ends of two pieces of material.
• A cross section is cut so that the tensile specimen is
oriented across the weld. Tests performed on these
specimens will encompass the weld material, the heat-
affected zones (HAZs), and the base material at each end.
• In some cases, longitudinal testing along the length of the
weld may also prove useful if more data are needed
specifically for the weld metal or HAZ.
• Tensile testing of welds can be found in AWS B4.0:2007,
Standard Methods for Mechanical Testing of Welds.
• Tensile properties of the weld joints namely yield and
ultimate strength and ductility (%age elongation, %age
reduction in area) can be obtained either in ambient
condition or in special environment (low temperature, high
temperature, corrosion etc.) depending upon the
requirement of the application using tensile test which is
usually conducted at constant strain rate (ranging from
0.0001 to 10000 mm/min).
• Tensile properties of the weld joint are obtained in two
ways
• Taking specimen from transverse direction of weld joint
consisting base metal heat affected zone-weld metal-heat
affected zone-base metal and
• All weld metal specimen as shown in Fig.
Tensile test results must be supported by respective engineering
stress and strain diagram indicating modulus of elasticity, elongation
at fracture, yield and ultimate strength as indicated in Fig.
Tests results must includes information on following point about test
conditions
• Type of sample
(transverse weld, all
weld specimen)
• Strain rate (mm/min)
• Temperature or any other
environment in which
test was conducted if any
• Topography,
morphology, texture of
the fracture surface
indicating the mode of Fig. Typical stress stain diagram for AA
7039 in as received (BM) and friction
fracture and respective stir processed (PM) condition
stress state
 BEND TESTING
• It Shows Physical condition of the weld
• Determines weld efficiency
 Tensile strength
 Ductility
 Fusion and Penetration
O
 Bend through 180
 the specimen should be a minimum of 30mm wide
 The fulcrums diameter is 3x thickness of the plate
 The bottom rollers have a distance of the diameter of the
former + 2.2 times the thickness of the plate
 Upper and lower surfaces ground or filed flat and edges
rounded off.
 the tests should be one against the root -another against
the face ,and in some cases a side bend.
• Bend/flex testing on welds
provides manufacturers with a
quality control check to determine
the ductility and soundness of the
weld and/or the weld process.
• Defects with welds generally exist
due to incomplete penetration and
fusion of the weld to the base
metal.
• These types of defects may not
always be visible to an X-ray test,
so a destructive bend/flex test is
very important to understand the
resistance of the weld.
• Bend test is one of the most important and commonly used
destructive tests to determine the ductility and soundness (for the
presence porosity, inclusion,
• penetration and other macro-size internal weld discontinuities) of
the weld joint produced using under one set of welding conditions.
• Bending of the weld joint can be done from face or root side
depending upon the purpose i.e. whether face or root side of the
weld is to be assessed.
• The root side bending shows the lack of penetration and fusion if
any at the root. Further, bending can be performed using simple
compressive/bending load and die of standard size for free and
guided bending respectively in Fig a) and b).
Moreover, free bending can be face or root bending, while guided
bending is performed by placing the weld joint over the die as needs
for bending is better and controlled condition as shown in Fig. For
bend test, the load increased until cracks start to appear on face or
root of the weld for face and root bend test respectively and angle of
bend at this stage is used as a measured of ductility of weld joints.
Higher is bend angle (needed for crack initiation) greater is ductility
of the weld. Fracture surface of the joint from the face/root side due
to bending reveals the presence of internal weld discontinuities if
any.
Root bend Face bend
 IMPACT
CHARPY & IZOD
• Gives the toughness and shock loading of
the material and weld at varying
temperatures with a notch such as under
cut
• The measurement is the energy required to
break a specimen with a given notch 2mm
depth at a 45obevel or a “U” notch.
TEST MACHINE
 CHARPY

IZOD
• Impact testing of welded material, using instrumented pendulum and
drop weight testers, provides information about the impact Strengths
and behavior properties of the weld.
• Weld properties behave differently if a preexisting fracture in the
Weld is exposed to a sudden impact, even more so at low or high
temperatures.
• The fracture strength of a weld is temperature dependent.
• Drop-weight tear tests and Charpy V and U-notch tests are common
impact tests on metals.
 HARDNESS TESTS
• Hardness is defined as resistance to indentation and is commonly used
as a measure of resistance to abrasion or scratching. For the formation
of a scratch or causing abrasion, a relative movement is required
between two bodies and out of two one body must penetrate/indent
into other body.
• Indentation is the penetration of a pointed object (harder) into other
object (softer) under the external load. Resistance to the penetration of
pointed object (indenter) into the softer one depends on the hardness
of the sample on which load is applied through the indenter.
All methods of hardness
testing are based on the
principle of applying the
standard load through the
indenter (a pointed object) and
measuring the penetration in
terms of diameter/ diagonal/
depth of indentation Fig.
 .
High penetration of an indenter at a given standard load suggests low
hardness. Various methods of hardness testing can be compared on the
basis of following three criteria 1) type of indenter, 2) magnitude of
load and 3) measurement of indentation

The tests are:

Brinell, Rockwell,
Vickers diamond pyramid,
Scleroscope.
• Penetration due to applied normal load is affected by unevenness
on the surface and presence of hard surface films such as oxides,
lubricants, dust and dirt etc. if any. Therefore, surface should be
cleaned and polished before hardness test.
• In case of Brinell hardness test, full load is applied directly for
causing indentation for measuring hardness.
• While in case of Rockwell hardness test, minor load (10 kN) is
applied first before applying major load.
• Minor load is applied to ensure the firm metallic contact between
the indenter and sample surface by breaking surface films and
impurities if any present on the surface.
• Minor load does not cause indentation. Indentation is caused by
major load only. Therefore, cleaning and polishing of the surface
films becomes mandatory for accuracy in hardness test results in
case of Brinell test method as major load is applied directly.
• Steel ball of different diameters (D) is used as an indenter in
Brinell hardness test.
• Diameter of indentation (d) is measured to calculate the
projected area and determine the hardness.
• Brinell hardness test results are expressed in terms of pressure
generated due to load (P). It is calculated by the ratio of load
applied and projected contact area.
• Load in the range of 500 to 3000 kg can be applied depending
upon the type of material to be tested.
• Higher load is applied for hardness testing of hard materials as
compared to soft materials.
• In case of Rockwell hardness test first minor load of 10 kg is
applied and then major load of 50-150kg is applied on the surface
of the work-piece through the indenter and the same is decided by
scale (A, B, C and D) to be used as per type of material to be
tested.
• Minor load is not changed. Out of mainly scales, B and C scales
are commonly used.
• Different indenter and major load are required for each scale.
Steel ball and diamond cone are two types of indenters used in
Rockwell testing.
• B scale uses hardened steel ball and major load of 90kg
• whereas C scale uses diamond cone and major load of 140kg
accordingly hardness is written in terms of HRB and HRC
respectively.
• Vickers hardness test uses square pyramid shape indenter of
diamond and load ranging from 1 to 120 kg.
• Average length (L) of two diagonals of square indentation is used
as a measure of hardness.
• Longer is average diagonal length lower is hardness. Vickers
hardness number (VHN) or diamond pyramid hardness (DPH) is
the ratio of load (P) and apparent area of indentation given by
• the relation:

VICKERS HARDNESS TESTER

• Hardness testing of welded material is an excellent example of
the traditional challenges associated with micro hardness testing.
• A series of traversed hardness measurements across the weld, and
most importantly in the heat-affected zone (HAZ), can
determine if the weld is applied correctly and within
specifications.
• Traditional testing techniques require manual stage traversing and
manual indentation reading via a microscope system.
• The results obtained are subjective and dependent on each
individual’s interpretation; therefore, the accuracy, consistency,
and reliability of the test data are questionable.
• Disadvantages to this approach are the associated costs,
extensive labor requirements and fatigue factor resulting from
repetitive microscope work.
• Recent advances in digital camera technology, application
software, and testing hardware have played a significant role in
the emergence of image analysis as a viable tool in weld
assessment.
 FATIGUE

• The testing of Material that is subject to fluctuating

loads
• HAIGH Electro magnetic tester.
• W’O’HLER Uses rotating chuck with weight
• Distinct fracture surface has a characteristic
texture.
• Concentric line pattern
• Smooth portion referred to as clamshell texture
Fatigue Appearance
 CRACKING
• REEVES Test study the
hardening and cracking of
welds.
• The compatibility of
electrodes for the metal
being joined.
• Three Sides Are Welded
With Known
Compatible Electrodes.
• The front edge is welded
with the test electrode.
• if incompatible it will
crack.
 Lab Test - MICROSCOPIC
• Used to determine the
actual structure of the
weld and parent metal

• Up to 50,000 times
magnification with an
electron beam
microscope

• Polishing must be of a
very high standard
• Welds which must find service in corrosive environments
often are immersed in corrosive media and given a
corrosion test.
• Depending upon the location of greatest corrosion,
valuable information can be obtained about service life of
the weldment.
MACROSCOPIC
• Examined using a
magnifying glass .
• magnification from 2
to 20 time.
• it will show up slag
entrapment or cracks .
• polishing not as high
as micro.
 ETCHING REAGENTS
• These are acids used to show up different structures
in metals
• For steels the most common is “1-2 % nitric acid in
distilled water or alcohol.
• Aluminum uses a solution of 10-20%caustic soda in
water

Metallographic Testing of weld

 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
While welding After welding
o Under cut
o The rate the o Lack of root fusion
electrode melts o Any pin holes from gas
o The way the weld or slag
metal flows o Amount of spatter
o Sound of the arc o Dimensions of weld
o The light given of

VISUAL
INSPECTION
• Visual inspection (VT) relies upon the detection of
surface imperfections using the eye.
• Normally applied without the use of any additional
equipment.
• VT can be improved by using aids such as a
magnifying glass to improve its effectiveness and
scope.
• VT is considered to be the primary NDT method.
• VT requires three basic conditions to be in place,
these are:
• Good vision, to be able to see what you are looking for
• Good lighting, the correct type of light is important
• Experience, to be able to recognize problems.
 Advantages
o Primary method of inspection
o On-going inspection
o Most economical inspection method
o Applicable at any stage of fabrication.
Limitations
o Restricted to surface inspection
o Good eyesight required
o Good lighting required
o Person performing the inspection must know and be
able to recognize what he/she is looking for.
 DYE PENETRANT TEST
These are an aid to visual inspection, Will only find surface
defects
Advantages
o Economical
o Aid to VT
o Portable
o Can inspect a wide range of materials and components.
Limitations
o Access required for surface preparation and cleaning
o Surface condition must be satisfactory
o Non-relevant indications from irregular surfaces
o Will only detect surface flaws
o Flaw must be clean and not contaminated
DYE PENETRANTS
 DYE PENETRANTS
Types
• Red
• Flouresant

Caution
• Oil based
• Water washable
DETECTION
 MAGNETIC PARTICLE

• Mainly for surface

defects
• Some sub surface
defects can be found
• Only ferrous metal
• Magnetic particle testing (MT) is used to locate surface
and slight subsurface continuities or defects in
ferromagnetic materials.
• Such flaws present in a magnetized part will cause a
magnetic field, i.e. flux, to leave the part.
• If magnetic particles are applied to this surface, they
will be held in place by the flux leakage to give a
visual indication.
• Alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) can be
used to induce a magnetic field.
 Advantages
• Economical
• Aid to VT
• Can be fixed or portable equipment
• Instant repeatable results
• Effective inspection method
• Contrast or fluorescent consumables.
Limitations
• Materials or part being inspected must be ferromagnetic
• High currents can be used
• Will only detect surface and slightly subsurface flaws.
• Material or part may need to be demagnetized
• Material or part must be clean and relatively smooth
• Equipment can be bulky and heavy (g) Power supply generally required
• Coating may mask indications
• Material or part permeability may affect results.
 ACOUSTICS

• Striking with a
rounded object

• Ringing tone if no
defect

• Tone changes when

object is cracked
 PRESSURE TEST

• Used to test pressure vessels

• Pipe lines
• The item for testing is filled with water or oil it is then
pressurised using a pump
• A safety valve is set 1.5 to 2 times below the working
pressure.
 RADIOGRAPHIC TESTS
• X-RAY
• GAMMA RAY,
• Electro magnetic radiation
of short duration
• Both of these methods are
a danger to health
X- RAY
X-RAY VIEWER

• Pictures taken are

viewed as negatives
• will only give flat
image not in three
dimensional
• darkened area must
be used for viewing
 Advantages
• Volumetric inspection.
• Can detect surface and subsurface flaws.
• Permanent records.
• Good quality control method.
Limitations
• Equipment can be bulky and heavy.
• Radiation hazards.
• Testing area needs to be controlled access.
• Equipment relatively time consuming and expensive.
• Access may be required to both sides of object.
• May not detect critical flaws.
• Results require interpreting by experienced person.
• Gamma results inferior to X ray results.
• Gamma less sensitive than X ray, especially on thin materials.
• Not suitable for certain configurations, e.g. tee joint.
 ULTRASONIC TESTING
• This uses high
pitched (frequency)
sound
• The sound will not
pass through an air
gap so bounces back
and is picked up on a
receiver
• The reader is a
oscilloscope
 Advantages
•Volumetric inspection.
•Access to only one side required.
•Inspects a variety of thicknesses and weld types.
•Portable equipment.
•Can detect surface and subsurface flaws.
•Can readily size flaws detected.
•Subject to orientation, can detect planar flaws reliability.
•Non-hazardous to personnel.
•Suitable for automation.
Limitations
•Test surface must be smooth.
•Expensive equipment.
•Reference standards required.
•Results require interpretation by experienced person.
•Inspection of welds over 6 mm thick.
Eddy Current Testing
 Eddy Current Testing

• In eddy current testing (ET), a coil carrying an AC current is

placed close to the specimen surface, or around the specimen.
• The current in the coil generates circulating eddy currents in the
specimen close to the surface and these in turn affect the current in
the coil by mutual induction.
• Flaws and material variations in the specimen affect the strength
of the eddy currents.
• The presence of flaws, etc. is therefore measured by electrical
changes in the exciting coil.
• Both voltage and phase changes can be measured
• Simpler instruments measure only the voltage changes.
 Advantages
• Gives instantaneous response
• Can be easily automated
• Versatile
• No contact between the probe and the test specimen
is essential
• Its equipment can be made portable.
Limitations
• Requires highly skilled operator
• Applicable to conductive materials only
• Depth of penetration in limited
• Its application to ferromagnetic materials is difficult