EC403:

MICROWAVE
& RADAR
ENGINEERING

Module II
 Course Outcomes (CO)

Cognitive
Course Name CO Number Course Outcomes Level

Analyze
EC403.1 Analyze the characteristics of Cavity resonators
Analyze
EC403.2 Analyze various microwave amplifiers and deduce its parameters.
Analyze the relationship between various parameters of Analyze
EC403.3
Microwave & microwave oscillators.
Radar Explain various microwave measurements, hybrid circuits and its Analyze
EC403.4
Engineering parameter measurements methods.
Illustrate the principle characteristics and operation of microwave solid Apply
EC403.5
state devices.
Analyze
Explain the basic concepts, types, working of radar with introduction to
EC403.6
radar transmitters and receivers.
 Module II

• Reflex Klystron Oscillators:

• Derivation of Power output
• Efficiency
• Admittance
 Topics to be covered

• Explain the structural details of reflex klystron.

• List the performance characteristics, applications of reflex klystron.
• With the help of Applegate diagram describe the operation of a reflex klystron oscillator.
• Explain the bunching process in reflex klystron.
• Explain the best transit time required for the oscillations to be sustained for a reflex klystron.
• Deduce output power and efficiency of a reflex klystron oscillator.
• Explain with figure the power output and frequency characteristics of reflex klystron.
• With admittance diagram explain the condition required for oscillation in a reflex Klystron.
• Explain the electronic admittance of the gap in the case of reflex klystron.
 Reflex Klystron

• If a fraction of the output power is fed back to the input cavity and if the loop gain has
a magnitude of unity with a phase shift of multiple 2π, the klystron will oscillate.
• However, a two-cavity klystron oscillator is usually not constructed because, when the
oscillation frequency is varied, the resonant frequency of each cavity and the feedback
path phase shift must be readjusted for a positive feedback.
• The reflex klystron is a single-cavity klystron that overcomes the disadvantages of the
two cavity klystron oscillator.
 Characteristics & Applications

• A low-power generator of 10 to 500-mW output at a frequency range of 1 to 25 GHz.

• Frequency range can be extended to 200GHz

• The theoretical efficiency is about 22.78 %. Practically 10% to 20%.

• Widely used in the laboratory for microwave measurements and in microwave receivers.

• Local oscillators in commercial, military, portable microwave links and airborne Doppler
radars as well as missiles.

• Pump oscillators for parametric amplifiers

 Theory of Operation

• The theory of the two-cavity klystron can be applied to the analysis of the
reflex klystron with slight modification.
• Velocity Modulation resulting in Current density Modulation.
 Operation of
reflex klystron
with schematic
diagram
• The electron beam injected from the cathode is first velocity-modulated by the
cavity-gap voltage.
• Some electrons accelerated by the accelerating field enter the repeller space
with greater velocity than those with unchanged velocity while some electrons
decelerated by the retarding field enter the repeller region with less velocity.
• All electrons turned around by the repeller voltage then pass through the
cavity gap in bunches that occur once per cycle.
• On their return journey the bunched electrons pass through the gap during the
retarding phase of the alternating field and give up their kinetic energy to the
electromagnetic energy of the field in the cavity.
• Oscillator output energy is then taken from the cavity.
• The electrons are finally collected by the walls of the cavity or other grounded
metal parts of the tube.
 

Applegate
Diagram for
the 1 Mode
 Velocity Modulation

• As done in Klystron amplifier here also the effect of space-charge forces on

the electron motion will be neglected.
• The electron entering the cavity gap from the cathode at z = 0 and time to is
assumed to have uniform velocity given by
 
=0.593 X 106√V0
 The same electron leaves the cavity gap at z = d at time t1 with velocity

The same electron is forced back to the cavity z = d and time t2 by the retarding
electric field E, which is given by

This retarding field E is assumed to be constant in the z direction.

The force equation for one electron in the repeller region is given by

 
where E = -V is used in the z direction only
Vr is the magnitude of the repeller voltage,
and |V sin ωt ||(V + V )| is assumed.
Integration of the equation twice yields
On the assumption that
the electron leaves the cavity gap at z = d and time t1 with a velocity of v(t1)
and returns to the gap at z = d and time t2,
then, at t = t2 , z = d,

The round-trip transit time in the repeller region is given by

where

is the round-trip dc transit time of the center-of-the-bunch electron

Multiplying the equation through by a radian frequency ω results in

where

is the round-trip dc transit angle of the center-of-the-bunch electron and

is the bunching parameter of the reflex klystron oscillator.

 Power Output and Efficiency

• In order for the electron beam to generate a maximum amount of energy to the
oscillation, the returning electron beam must cross the cavity gap when the gap field
is maximum retarding.
• In this way, a maximum amount of kinetic energy can be transferred from the
returning electrons to the cavity walls.
• It can be seen that from for a maximum energy transfer, the
round-trip transit angle, referring to the center of the bunch, must be given by

 where V1 Vo is assumed, n = any positive integer for cycle number, and N = n - is the number of modes.
• The current modulation of the electron beam as it re-enters the cavity from the repeller
region can be determined in the same manner as in done for a two cavity klystron
amplifier.

• The bunching parameter X' of a reflex klystron oscillator has a negative sign with
respect to the bunching parameter X of a two-cavity klystron amplifier.
• Furthermore, the beam current injected into the cavity gap from the repeller region
flows in the negative z direction.
Consequently, the beam current of a reflex klystron oscillator can be written

• The fundamental component of the current induced in the cavity by the

modulated electron beam is given by

 in which has been neglected as a small quantity compared with .

 • The magnitude of the fundamental component is

• The dc power supplied by the beam voltage Vo is and the ac power delivered to the load
is given by

• From the bunching parameter equation the ratio of V1 over Vo can be expressed as

• Based on the substitution in previous equations the power output can be expressed as
 Therefore, the electronic efficiency of a reflex klystron oscillator is defined as

Figure shows a curve of

X' J1(X ') versus X'.

• The factor X'J1(X ') reaches a maximum value of 1.25 at X' = 2.408 and J1(X ') = 0.52.
  In practice, the mode of n = 2 has the most power output.
If n = 2 or 1 mode, the maximum electronic efficiency is obtained

• The maximum theoretical efficiency of a reflex klystron oscillator ranges from 20 to 30%.
 To determine the center repeller voltage Vr
• For a given beam voltage Vo , the relationship between the repeller voltage
and cycle number n required for oscillation is expressed as

The power output can be expressed in terms of the repeller voltage Vr

It can be seen from above equations

• For a given beam voltage Vo and cycle number n or mode number N, the center
repeller voltage Vr can be determined in terms of the center frequency.
• The power output at the center frequency can also be calculated .
When the frequency varies from the center frequency and the repeller voltage about the
center voltage, the power output will vary accordingly, assuming a bell shape as shown in
figure
 Electronic Admittance

• The induced current can be written in phasor

form as

• The voltage across the gap at time t2 can also be written in phasor form:

• The ratio of i2 to V2 is defined as the electronic admittance of the reflex klystron.

• The amplitude of the phasor admittance indicates that the electronic admittance is a
function of the dc beam admittance, the dc transit angle, and the second transit of the
electron beam through the cavity gap.
• It is evident that the electronic admittance is nonlinear, since it is proportional to the
factor 2J1(X ')/X ', and X' is proportional to the signal voltage.

• This factor of proportionality is shown in Figure.

• When the signal voltage goes to zero, the factor approaches unity.
• The equivalent circuit of a reflex klystron is shown in figure.

• L and C are the energy storage elements of the cavity

• Ge represents the copper losses of the cavity
• Gb the beam loading conductance
• Ge the load conductance.
• The necessary condition for oscillations is that the magnitude of the negative real part of
the electronic admittance should not be less than the total conductance of the cavity circuit.

where and Rsh is the effective shunt resistance.

• As stated earlier the electronic admittance of the reflex klystron is

• This can be rewritten in rectangular form:

• Since the electronic admittance is in exponential form, its phase is π/2 when ϴ0 is zero.
• The rectangular plot of the electron admittance Ye is a spiral as shown in figure.
• Any value of ϴ0 for which the spiral lies in the area to the left of line (-G - jB) will
yield oscillation. That is,

where N is the mode number as indicated in the plot, the phenomenon verifies the
early analysis
 Module II

• Magnetron oscillators:
• Cylindrical magnetron
• Cyclotron angular frequency
• Power output and efficiency
 Topics to be covered

• With the structure of 8 cavity magnetron explain the bunching process.

• Deduce the Hull cut-off condition with respect to magnetron.
• With neat diagram describe the constructional features and working of a cylindrical magnetron.
• Deduce the expression for cyclotron angular frequency of a cylindrical magnetron.
• Deduce the expression for the cut off magnetic flux density with reference to cylindrical
magnetron.
• Assuming pi mode of oscillations explain how a magnetron can sustain its oscillations using the
cross field.
• Explain cross field devices. How does a magnetron sustain its oscillations using this cross field.
• Deduce the expression for output power and efficiency of a magnetron.
 MAGNETRON OSCILLATORS

• Hull invented the magnetron in 1921, but it was only an interesting laboratory device until about 1940.
• During World War II, an urgent need for high-power microwave generators for radar transmitters led to
the rapid development of the magnetron to its present state.
• All magnetrons consist of some form of anode and cathode operated in a dc magnetic field normal to a
dc electric field between the cathode and anode.
• Because of the crossed field between the cathode and anode, the electrons emitted from the cathode are
influenced by the crossed field to move in curved paths.
• If the dc magnetic field is strong enough, the electrons will not arrive in the anode but return instead to
the cathode.
• Consequently, the anode current is cut off.
 Three Types:
• Split-anode magnetron:
• Uses a static negative resistance between two anode segments.
• They operate at frequencies below the microwave region (< 500 MHz).
• Low efficiency.
• Cyclotron-frequency magnetrons:
• Operates under the influence of synchronism between an alternating component of electric field and a periodic oscillation of electrons
in a direction parallel to the field.
• Operate at frequencies in microwave range, their power output is very small (about 1 W at 3 GHz), and their efficiency is very low
(about 10% in the split-anode type and 1 % in the single-anode type).
• Traveling-wave magnetrons:
• Depends on the interaction of electrons with a traveling electromagnetic field of linear velocity.
• They are customarily referred to simply as magnetrons.
• Different types are cylindrical magnetron, linear (or planar) magnetron, coaxial magnetron, voltage-tunable magnetron,
inverted coaxial magnetron, and the frequency-agile magnetron
 Cylindrical Magnetron

A schematic diagram
of a cylindrical
magnetron oscillator is
shown in Figure.
This type of magnetron
is also called a
conventional
magnetron.
 Constructional Details

• A thick cylindrical cathode is present at the center and a cylindrical block of copper, is
fixed axially, which acts as an anode.
• This anode block is made of a number of slots that acts as resonant anode cavities.
• The space present between the anode and cathode is called as Interaction space.
• The electric field is present radially while the magnetic field is present axially in the
cavity magnetron.
• This magnetic field is produced by a permanent magnet, which is placed such that the
magnetic lines are parallel to cathode and perpendicular to the electric field present
between the anode and the cathode.
• The detailed diagram of cavity magnetrons is,
• The dc voltage Vo is applied between the cathode

and the anode.

• The magnetic flux density Bo is in the positive z

direction.

• When the dc voltage and the magnetic flux are

adjusted properly, the electrons will follow
cycloidal paths in the cathode anode space
under the combined force of both electric and
magnetic fields as shown in Figure.
Electron path in a cylindrical magnetron.
 Equivalency

• Each cavity in the anode acts as an inductor

having only one turn and the slot connecting the
cavity and the interaction space acts as a
capacitor.
• These two form a parallel resonant circuit and its
resonant frequency depends on the value of L of
the cavity and the C of the slot.
• The frequency of the microwaves generated by
the magnetron oscillator depends on the
frequency of the RF oscillations existing in the
resonant cavities. Cross sectional view of anode
assembly can be viewed as,
 Working Principle

• Magnetron is a cross field device as the electric field between the anode and the cathode is
radial whereas the magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet is axial.
• A high dc potential can be applied between the cathode and anode which produces the
radial electric field.
• Depending on the relative strengths of the electric and magnetic fields, the electrons
emitted from the cathode and moving towards the anode will traverse through the
interaction space.
• Here we explain with respect to an 8 cavity magnetron oscillator supporting π mode of
oscillations.
• This magnetron has 8 cavities tightly coupled to each other.
• An N-cavity magnetron has N modes of operations.
• These operations depend upon the frequency and the phase of oscillations.
• The total phase shift around the ring of this cavity resonators should be 2nπ where n is
an integer.

If ϕv represents the relative phase change of the AC electric field across adjacent cavities, then

ϕv =2πnN
 
Where n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±(−1), ±

 
When n= then ϕv =π. This mode of resonance is called as π−mode.
When n = 0 then ϕv =0. This is called as the Zero mode, because there will be no RF electric
field between the anode and the cathode.
This is also called as Fringing Field and this mode is not used in magnetrons.
 Operation of Magnetron

Case I
In the absence of magnetic
field (B = 0), the electron
travel straight from the
cathode to the anode due
to the radial electric field
force acting on it as given
by the path ‘a’ in the
following figure.
 Case II
If the magnetic field
strength is increased
slightly, the lateral force
bending the path of the
electron as given by the
path ‘b’ in the following
figure.

 
Radius of this path is calculated as =
𝒎𝒗
𝑹
𝒆𝑩
Case III
• If the strength of the magnetic
field is made sufficiently high
, then the electrons can be
prevented from reaching the
anode as indicated path ‘c’ in
figure.
• The magnetic field required
to return electrons back to the
cathode just grazing the
surface of the anode is called
the critical magnetic field (Bc)
or the cut-off magnetic field.
Case IV

If the magnetic field

is larger than the
critical field (B >
Bc), the electron
experiences a
greater rotational
force and may
return back to the
cathode quite faster.
 How Oscillations happens?

• The RF oscillations of transient nature produced when the HT is switched on, are sufficient to produce the
oscillations in the cavities, these oscillations are maintained in the cavities reentrant feedback which results in
the production of microwaves.
• Reentrant feedback takes place as a result of interaction of the electrons with the electric field of the RF
oscillations existing in the cavities.
• The cavity oscillations produce electric fields which fringe out into the interaction space from the slots in the
anode structure, as shown in figure , which illustrates possible trajectory of electrons from cathode to anode
in an eight cavity magnetron operating in  mode .
• Energy is transferred from the radial dc field to the RF field by the interaction of the electrons with the
fringing RF field.
• Due to the oscillations in the cavities, the either sides of the slots (which acts as a capacitor) becomes
alternatively positive and negative and hence the directions of the electric field across the slot also reverse its
sign alternatively.
• At any instant the anode close to the • The following figure illustrates possible
spiraling electron goes positive, the electrons trajectory of electrons from cathode to anode in
gets retarded and this is because; the electron an eight cavity magnetron operating in  mode,
has to move in the RF field, existing close to
the slot, from positive side to the negative
side of the slot.
• In this process, the electron loses energy and
transfer an equal amount of energy to the RF
field which retard the spiraling electron.
• On return to the previous orbit the electron
may reach the adjacent section or a section
farther away and transfer energy to the RF
field if that part of the anode goes positive at
that instant.
• This electron travels in a longest path
from cathode to the anode as indicated by
‘a’ in the Figure , transferring the energy
to the RF field are called as favored
electrons and are responsible for bunching
effect and give up most of its energy
before it finally terminates on the anode
surface.
• An electron ‘b’ is accelerated by the RF
field and instead of imparting energy to
the oscillations, takes energy from
oscillations resulting in increased velocity,
such electrons are called unfavored
electrons which do not participate in the
bunching process and cause back heating.
• Every time an electron approaches the anode “in phase” with the RF signal, it
completes a cycle. This corresponds to a phase shift 2.
• For a dominant mode, the adjacent poles have a phase difference of  radians, this
called the  - mode.
• At any particular instant, one set of alternate poles goes positive and the remaining set
of alternate poles goes negative due to the RF oscillations in the cavities.
• As the electron approaches the anode, one set of alternate poles accelerates the
electrons and turns back the electrons quickly to the cathode and the other set
alternate poles retard the electrons, thereby transferring the energy from electrons to
the RF signal.
• This process results in the bunching of electrons, the mechanism by which electron
bunches are formed and by which electrons are kept in synchronism with the RF field
is called phase focusing effect.
• The number of bunches depends on the number of cavities in
the magnetron and the mode of oscillations.
• In an eight cavity magnetron oscillating with  - mode, the
electrons are bunched in four groups as shown in following
figure.
• Two identical resonant cavities will resonate at two frequencies
when they are coupled together; this is due to the effect of
mutual coupling.
• Commonly separating the pi mode from adjacent modes is by a
method called strapping. The straps consist of either circular or
rectangular cross section connected to alternate segments of the
anode block.
 Equations of Electron Motion

• Review
• Electron motion in an electric field
• Electron motion in a magnetic field
• Electron motion in an electromagnetic field
 Electron Motion in an Electromagnetic Field

• If both electric and magnetic fields exist simultaneously, the motion of the
electrons depends on the orientation of the two fields.
• If the two fields are in the same or in opposite directions, the magnetic field exerts
no force on the electron, and the electron motion depends only on the electric field
• When the electric field E and the magnetic flux density B are at right angle to each
other, a magnetic force is exerted on the electron beam. This type of field is called
a crossed field.
• In a crossed-field tube (M-type device), electrons emitted
by the cathode are accelerated by the electric field and
gain velocity; but the greater their velocity, the more
their path is bent by the magnetic field.

• The Lorentz force acting on an electron because of the

presence of both the electric field E and the magnetic
flux B is given by
The equations of motion for electrons in a crossed field are expressed in
rectangular coordinates and cylindrical coordinates, respectively, as
Hull cutoff Magnetic Equation:
• The equation for the cutoff magnetic field can be obtained by considering the equations for the
motion of electrons in the cylindrical magnetron which can be written as,
 Cyclotron Angular Frequency

• Since the magnetic field is normal to the motion of electrons that travel in a
cycloidal path, the outward centrifugal force is equal to the pulling force. Hence,

where R = radius of the cycloidal path V= tangential velocity of the electron

The cyclotron angular frequency of the circular motion of the electron is then given by
 The period of one complete revolution can be expressed as

Since the slow-wave structure is closed on itself, or "re-entrant," oscillations are

possible only if the total phase shift around the structure is an integral multiple of
2π radians.
Thus, if there are N re-entrant cavities in the

where n is an integer indicating the nth mode of oscillation.

• In order for oscillations to be produced in the structure, the anode dc voltage
must be adjusted so that the average rotational velocity of the electrons
corresponds to the phase velocity of the field in the slow-wave structure.

• Magnetron oscillators are ordinarily operated in the π mode. That is,

• Figure shows the lines of force in the π

mode of an eight-cavity magnetron.
• It is evident that in the π mode the
excitation is largely in the cavities, having
opposite phase in successive cavities.
• The successive rise and fall of adjacent anode cavity fields
may be regarded as a traveling wave along the surface of the
slow-wave structure.
• For the energy to be transferred from the moving electrons to
the traveling field, the electrons must be decelerated by a
retarding field when they pass through each anode cavity.
• If L is the mean separation between cavities, the phase
constant of the fundamental-mode field is given by
The traveling-wave field of the slow-wave structure may be obtained by solving Maxwell's
equations subject to the boundary conditions.
The solution for the fundamental ϕ component of the electric field has the form

where E1 is a constant and β0 is already given from previous equation.

Thus, the traveling field of the fundamental mode travels around the structure with angular
velocity
 Where can be found from the
solution

When the cyclotron frequency of the electrons is equal to the angular frequency of the field,
the interactions between the field and electron occurs and the energy is transferred.

That is,
 Power Output & Efficiency

• The efficiency and power output of a magnetron depend on the resonant

structure and the dc power supply.
An Equivalent Circuit for a Resonator of a Magnetron

where
Ye= electronic admittance
V = RF voltage across the vane tips
C = capacitance at the vane tips
L = inductance of the resonator
Gr = conductance of the resonator
G = load conductance per resonator
Each resonator of the slow-wave structure is taken to comprise a separate resonant circuit
The unloaded quality factor of the resonator is given by

where w0 = 2πfo is the angular resonant frequency.

The external quality factor of the load circuit is

The circuit efficiency is defined as

• The maximum circuit efficiency is obtained when the magnetron is heavily loaded, that is,
for Gl >> Gr.
• Heavy loading, however, makes the tube quite sensitive to the load, which is undesirable
in some cases.
• Therefore, the ratio of Ql/Qex is often chosen as a compromise between the conflicting
requirements for high circuit efficiency and frequency stability.
The electronic efficiency is defined as
The electronic efficiency is defined as
 The RF power generated by the electrons can be written as

where
N = total number of resonators
V = RF voltage across the resonator gap
Emax = M1 |V| / L is the maximum electric field
M1 = sin(βnδ/2) / (βnδ/2) = 1 for small δ is the gap factor for the π-mode operation
β= phase constant
Bz = magnetic flux density
L = center-to-center spacing of the vane tips
The power generated may be simplified to

The electronic efficiency may be rewritten as