MAE 1202: AEROSPACE PRACTICUM

Introduction to Aircraft Performance: Part 2

April 7, 2008

Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department

Florida Institute of Technology

D. R. Kirk
 WEEK #12: LABORATORY SESSIONS
• Rocket components handed out this week in Thursday/Friday laboratory session:
– Motor mount tube
– Requested motor
– Launch lugs
– Final dimensions for new altimeter casing
• Diameter - .75 in (3/4 in)
• Length - 5.375 in +- .0625 in (5 3/8 in +- 1/16 in)
• Weight - 60 grams +- 1 gram
– weight includes case, altimeter, switch and battery

• Another useful site for help with calculations:

– http://my.execpc.com/~culp/rockets/rckt_eqn.html#Method
 PRO|ENGINEER DESIGN CONTEST
• Create most elaborate, complex, stunning Aerospace Related project in
ProEngineer
• Criteria: Assembly and/or exploded view

• Winner
– Either increase your grade by an entire letter (C → B), or
– Buy your most expensive textbook next semester
PRO|ENGINEER CONTEST
PRO|ENGINEER CONTEST
If you do the PRO|E challenge…

Do not let it consume you!

 PROCEDURE: THRUST REQUIREMENT
1. Select a flight speed, V∞
2. Calculate CL
W
CL 
Minimum TR when airplane 1
flying at (L/D)max
 V2 S
2
3. Calculate CD

C L2
CD  CD,0 
eAR
4. Calculate CL/CD
5. Calculate TR

W
This is how much thrust engine TR 
must produce to fly at selected V∞  CL 
 C 
 D
THRUST REQUIRED VS. FLIGHT VELOCITY
TR  D  q SC D  q S  C D , 0  C D ,i 
C L2
TR  q SC D , 0  q S
eAR
Zero-Lift TR Lift-Induced TR
(Parasitic Drag) (Induced Drag)

Maximum L/D
CD,0 = CD,i
Zero-Lift TR ~ V2
(Parasitic Drag)

Lift-Induced TR ~ 1/V2
(Induced Drag)

Zero-Lift Drag = Induced Drag at minimum TR and maximum L/D

 MAXIMUM VELOCITY
• Maximum flight speed occurs when thrust available, TA=TR
– Reduced throttle settings, TR < TA
– Cannot physically achieve more thrust than TA which engine can provide

Intersection of TR
curve and maximum
TA defined maximum
flight speed of airplane
 AIRPLANE POWER PLANTS

Consider two types of engines common

in aviation today

1. Reciprocating piston engine with

propeller
– Average light-weight, general
aviation aircraft
– Rated in terms of POWER

2. Jet (Turbojet, turbofan) engine

– Large commercial transports
and military aircraft
– Rated in terms of THRUST
 THRUST VS. POWER
• Jets Engines (turbojets, turbofans for military and commercial applications) are
usually rate in Thrust
– Thrust is a Force with units (N = kg m/s2)
– For example, the PW4000-112 is rated at 98,000 lb of thrust

• Piston-Driven Engines are usually rated in terms of Power

– Power is a precise term and can be expressed as:
• Energy / time with units (kg m2/s2) / s = kg m2/s3 = Watts
– Note that Energy is expressed in Joules = kg m2/s2
• Force * Velocity with units (kg m/s2) * (m/s) = kg m2/s3 = Watts
– Usually rated in terms of horsepower (1 hp = 550 ft lb/s = 746 W)

• Example:
– Airplane is level, unaccelerated flight at a given altitude with speed V∞
– Power Required, PR=TR*V∞
– [W] = [N] * [m/s]
AIRPLANE POWER PLANTS
 POWER AVAILABLE (6.6)

Propeller Drive Engine Jet Engine

 POWER REQUIRED (6.5)
W
PR  TRV  V
 CL 
 C 
 D

1 2W
L  W   V2 SC L  V 
2   SC L
W 2W
PR 
 CL    SC L
 C 
 D

2W 3C D2 1
PR   PR varies inversely as CL3/2/CD
  SC L
3
 C 32 
 L 
 CD 
  Recall: TR varies inversely as CL/CD
POWER REQUIRED (6.5)

PR vs. V∞ qualitatively

(Resembles TR vs. V∞)

 POWER REQUIRED (6.5)
PR  TRV  DV  q SCDV  q S  C D ,0  C D ,i V
C L2
PR  q SCD , 0V  q SV
eAR
Zero-Lift PR Lift-Induced PR

Zero-Lift PR ~ V3

Lift-Induced PR ~ 1/V
 POWER REQUIRED
• V∞ for minimum PR is less than V∞ for minimum TR

1
CD,0  C D ,i
3

C D , 0  C D ,i
 WHY DO WE CARE ABOUT THIS?
• We will show that for a piston-engine propeller combination
– To fly longest distance (maximum range) we fly airplane at speed
corresponding to maximum L/D
– To stay aloft longest (maximum endurance) we fly the airplane at minimum
PR or fly at a velocity where CL3/2/CD is a maximum

• Power will also provide information on maximum rate of climb and altitude
POWER AVAILABLE AND MAXIMUM VELOCITY (6.6)

Propeller Drive
Engine

PA

PR

1 hp = 550 ft lb/s = 746 W

POWER AVAILABLE AND MAXIMUM VELOCITY (6.6)

Jet Engine

V ∞

=T
A

PA

PR
ALTITUDE EFFECTS ON POWER REQUIRED AND AVAILABLE (6.7)

Recall PR = f(∞)
Subscript ‘0’ denotes seal-level conditions
1
 0  2
VALT  V0  
  
1
 0  2
PR , ALT  PR ,0  
  

Allows for quick scaling of results from altitude to another

ALTITUDE EFFECTS ON POWER REQUIRED AND AVAILABLE (6.7)
Propeller-Driven Airplane

Vmax,ALT < Vmax,sea-level

 RATE OF CLIMB (6.8)
• Boeing 777: Lift-Off Speed ~ 180 MPH
• How fast can it climb to a cruising altitude of 30,000 ft?
 RATE OF CLIMB (6.8)

Governing Equations (F=0):

Force balance in direction of flight: T  D  W sin 

Force balance perpendicular to direction of flight: L  W cos 
 RATE OF CLIMB (6.8)

T  D  W sin 
TV  DV  WV sin 
TV  DV
 V sin 
W Vertical velocity

Rate of Climb: R / C  V sin 

TV∞ is power available

DV∞ is level-flight power required (for small  neglect W)
TV∞- DV∞ is excess power
 RATE OF CLIMB (6.8)

Propeller Drive Engine Jet Engine

Maximum R/C Occurs when Maximum Excess Power

 EXAMPLE: F-15 K
• Weapon launched from an F-15 fighter by a small two stage rocket, carries a heat-
seeking Miniature Homing Vehicle (MHV) which destroys target by direct impact
at high speed (kinetic energy weapon)
• F-15 can bring ALMV under the ground track of its target, as opposed to a
ground-based system, which must wait for a target satellite to overfly its launch
site.
 GLIDING FLIGHT (6.9)

sin  D
T 0 
cos  L To maximize range, smallest
D  W sin  1  occurs at (L/D)max
tan  
L  W cos  L
D
EXAMPLE: HIGH ASPECT RATIO GLIDER

To maximize range, smallest  occurs at (L/D)max

A modern sailplane may have a glide ratio as high as 60:1
So  = tan-1(1/60) ~ 1°
 RANGE AND ENDURANCE

How far can we fly?

How long can we stay aloft?

How do answers vary for propeller-driven versus jet-engine?

 RANGE AND ENDURANCE
• Range: Total distance (measured with respect to the ground) traversed by airplane
on a single tank of fuel
• Endurance: Total time that airplane stays in air on a single tank of fuel

1. Parameters to maximize range are different from those that maximize endurance
2. Parameters are different for propeller-powered and jet-powered aircraft

• Fuel Consumption Definitions

– Propeller-Powered:
• Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)
• Definition: Weight of fuel consumed per unit power per unit time

– Jet-Powered:
• Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (TSFC)
• Definition: Weight of fuel consumed per unit thrust per unit time
 PROPELLER-DRIVEN: RANGE AND ENDURANCE
• SFC: Weight of fuel consumed per unit power per unit time

lb of fuel
SFC 
 HP  hour 
• ENDURANCE: To stay in air for longest amount of time, use minimum number
of pounds of fuel per hour

lb of fuel
 SFC HP 
 hour 
• Minimum lb of fuel per hour obtained with minimum HP
• Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when
airplane is flying at minimum power required
• Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when
airplane is flying at a velocity such that CL3/2/CD is a maximized
 PROPELLER-DRIVEN: RANGE AND ENDURANCE
• SFC: Weight of fuel consumed per unit power per unit time

lb of fuel
SFC 
 HP  hour 
• RANGE: To cover longest distance use minimum pounds of fuel per mile

lb of fuel SFC HP 

 mile V
• Minimum lb of fuel per hour obtained with minimum HP/V∞
• Maximum range for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when airplane
is flying at a velocity such that CL/CD is a maximum
 PROPELLER-DRIVEN: RANGE BREGUET FORMULA

 C L  Winitial 
R ln
SFC C D  W final 

• To maximize range:
– Largest propeller efficiency, 
– Lowest possible SFC
– Highest ratio of Winitial to Wfinal, which is obtained with the largest fuel weight
– Fly at maximum L/D
PROPELLER-DRIVEN: RANGE BREGUET FORMULA

 C L  Winitial 
R ln
SFC C D  W final 

Propulsion Structures and Materials

Aerodynamics
 PROPELLER-DRIVEN: ENDURACE BREGUET FORMULA

3
 CL 2
 2   S  2 W final2  Winitial2 
1 1 1
E
SFC C D  

• To maximize endurance:
– Largest propeller efficiency, 
– Lowest possible SFC
– Largest fuel weight
– Fly at maximum CL3/2/CD
– Flight at sea level
 JET-POWERED: RANGE AND ENDURANCE
• TSFC: Weight of fuel consumed per thrust per unit time

lb of fuel
TSFC 
 lb of thrust  hour 

• ENDURANCE: To stay in air for longest amount of time, use minimum number
of pounds of fuel per hour

lb of fuel
 TSFC Thrust 
 hour 
• Minimum lb of fuel per hour obtained with minimum thrust
• Maximum endurance for a jet-powered airplane occurs when
airplane is flying at minimum thrust required
• Maximum endurance for a jet-powered airplane occurs when
airplane is flying at a velocity such that CL/CD is a maximum
 JET-POWERED: RANGE AND ENDURANCE
• TSFC: Weight of fuel consumed per unit power per unit time

lb of fuel
TSFC 
 lb of thrust  hour 

• RANGE: To cover longest distance use minimum pounds of fuel per mile
lb of fuel SFC Thrust 

 mile V
• Minimum lb of fuel per hour obtained with minimum Thrust/V∞

TR 1 2W 1
  S CD  1
V 2   SC L CL 2
CD
• Maximum range for a jet-powered airplane occurs when airplane is flying
at a velocity such that CL1/2/CD is a maximum
 JET-POWERED: RANGE BREGUET FORMULA

1
2 1 CL 2 W 12  W 12 
R2
  S TSFC C D  initial final


• To maximize range:
– Minimum TSFC
– Maximum fuel weight
– Flight at maximum CL1/2/CD
– Fly at high altitudes
JET-POWERED: ENDURACE BREGUET FORMULA

1 C L  Winitial 

E ln
TSFC C D  W final 


• To maximize endurance:
– Minimum TSFC
– Maximum fuel weight
– Flight at maximum L/D
 SUMMARY: ENDURANCE AND RANGE
• Maximum Endurance
– Propeller-Driven
• Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when airplane is
flying at minimum power required
• Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when airplane is
flying at a velocity such that CL3/2/CD is a maximized
– Jet Engine-Driven
• Maximum endurance for a jet-powered airplane occurs when airplane is flying
at minimum thrust required
• Maximum endurance for a jet-powered airplane occurs when airplane is flying
at a velocity such that CL/CD is a maximum

• Maximum Range
– Propeller-Driven
• Maximum range for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when airplane is flying
at a velocity such that CL/CD is a maximum
– Jet Engine-Driven
• Maximum range for a jet-powered airplane occurs when airplane is flying at a
velocity such that CL1/2/CD is a maximum
EXAMPLES OF DYNAMIC
PERFORMANCE

Take-Off Distance
Turning Flight
 TAKE-OFF AND LANDING ANALYSES (6.15)

dV
F  ma  m Rolling resistance
dt
F r = 0.02
dV  dt
m
F
V t dV
m F  T  D  R  T  D   r W  L   m
ds  Vdt dt
V 2m
s s: lift-off distance
2F
NUMERICAL SOLUTION FOR TAKE-OFF
 USEFUL APPROXIMATION (T >> D, R)
sL.O.: lift-off distance

2
1.44W
s L.O. 
g  SC L ,maxT
• Lift-off distance very sensitive to weight, varies as W2
• Depends on ambient density
• Lift-off distance may be decreased:
– Increasing wing area, S
– Increasing CL,max
– Increasing thrust, T
EXAMPLES OF GROUND EFFECT
TURNING FLIGHT
L cos   W
Fr  L  W
2 2

L
n Load Factor
W
Fr  W n 2  1
V2
Fr  m
R
2
V
R: Turn Radius R
g n2 1
d V g n 2  1
  
: Turn Rate dt R V
EXAMPLE: PULL-UP MANEUVER

Fr  L  W  W  n  1
V2
Fr  m
R
2
V
R R: Turn Radius
g  n  1
g  n  1
 : Turn Rate
V
 V-n DIAGRAMS
1
 V
L 2   L
2
SC
n 
W W
1 2 C L , max
nmax   V
2 W
S
STRUCTURAL LIMITS
EXTRA SLIDES
 POWER REQUIRED
2
1 W
PR   V3 SC D , 0 
2 1
 V SeAR
2
dPR 3 2  1 
  V S  C D , 0  C D ,i   0
dV 2  3 

At point of minimum PR, dPR/dV∞=0

1
CD ,0  C D ,i
3
 POWER REQUIRED
• V∞ for minimum PR is less than V∞ for minimum TR

dPR
0
dV

d  R 
P
dTR  V 
 0
dV dV