1

LECTURE 6
MACHINE POWER
Introduction 2

 The constructor/mining engineer must select the proper equipment to relocate

and/or process materials economically.
 The decision process for matching the best possible machine to the project task
requires consideration of the mechanical capabilities of the machine
Cont… 3

 Machine power is the power needed to propel the machine, and this power is
established by two factors:
1. Rolling resistance, and
2. Grade resistance
Cont… 4

 Equipment manufactures publish performance charts for individual machine

models.
 These charts enable the equipment planner to analyze a machine’s ability to
perform under a set of job and load conditions.
Performance chart 5
Cont… 6

 The decision process for matching the best possible machine to the project task
requires that the contractor takes into account the following items:
1. Properties of the material to be handled
2. Mechanical capabilities of the machine.
Cont… 7

 When estimator considers a construction/mining material-handling problem, there

are two primary material considerations:
1. Total quantity
2. Size of individual pieces
PAYLOAD 8

 The payload of hauling equipment maybe expressed either gravimetrically or

volumetrically.
 Volumetric capacity can be stated as struck measure or in terms of:
 Loose cubic metres (lcm)
 Bank cubic metres (bcm) or
 Compacted cubic metres (ccm)
STRUCK CAPACITY 9

 Manufacturer’s specification sheets will list both struck and heaped capacities.

STRUCK
 Material measured straight across the top of the body.
HEAPED CAPACITY 10

 Based on a 2:1 slope above hauler bodies.

PAYLOAD 11

 The payload capacity of a hauling unit is often stated by the manufacturer in terms
of the volume of loose material that the unit can hold, assuming that the material
is heaped in some specified angle of repose.
PAYLOAD 12

 A gravimetric capacity would represent the safe operational weight that the axles
and structural frame of the machine were designed to handle.
MACHINE POWER 13

 Why does a machine only travel at 10 mph when its top speed is 30mph?’’ This is
critical question because:
 Speed affects cycle time
 Cycle time drives production
 Production determines cost
MACHINE PERFORMANCE 14

 To answer the travel speed question, it is necessary to analyze machine power.

 These are three power questions that need to be analyzed:
1. Required power.
2. Available power.
3. Usable power.
POWER REQUIRED 15

 A machine must overcome the forces of rolling and grade resistance to propel
itself. These can be expressed as:
 Ib/ton
 % effective grade
POWER REQUIRED 16

 Two factors establish the power requirements:

 Rolling resistance
 Grade resistance
 Therefore, power required is the power necessary to overcome the total resistance
to machine movement.
POWER REQUIRED 17

 Total resistance

Total resistance (TR) =

Rolling resistance (RR)
+
Grade resistance (GR)
POWER REQUIRED 18

TR = RR + GR
ROLLING RESISTANCE 19

 Rolling resistance is a measure of the force (lb/ton) that must be overcome to

rotate a wheel over the surface on which it makes contact.
ROLLING RESISTANCE 20

Rolling resistance is caused by

 Tire penetrating the surface
 Internal gear friction
 Tire flexing (tire rigidity which is a function of applied tire pressure)
ROLLING RESISTANCE 21

 General notes
 Rolling resistance (wheel resistance or track resistance) is the resistance of a level
surface to constant-velocity motion across it.
 This resistance varies considerably with the type and condition of the surface over
which a vehicle moves.
ROLLING RESISTANCE 22

 General notes (cont’d)

 For vehicles which move on rubber tires the rolling resistance varies with the size
of, pressure on, and tread design of the tires.
 For equipment which moves on crawler tracks, such as tractors, the resistance
varies primarily with the type and condition of the road surface.
 Traction - Pulling power, as of an engine.
ROLLING RESISTANCE 23

 General Notes (cont’d)

 A narrow-tread, high-pressure tire gives lower rolling resistance than a broad
tread, low-pressure tire on a hard-surfaced road.
 If the road surface is soft and the tire tends to sink into the earth, a broad tread,
low-pressure tire will offer a lower rolling resistance than a narrow tread, high-
pressure tire.
 The tread of a tire or track refers to the rubber on its circumference that makes
contact with the road or the ground
ROLLING RESISTANCE 24

 General Notes (cont’d)

 The maintenance of low-rolling-resistance haul roads is one of the best financial
investments that an earth moving contractor can make.
ROLLING RESISTANCE 25

 Estimating Rolling Resistance

 Formulas
 Tables (general)
 Tow cable method
ROLLING RESISTANCE 26

 If tire penetration is known

Rolling resistance (lb) =
(40 +(30 + TP)) X GVW

 TP = tire penetration, inches (maybe different for haul and return (Why?))
 GVW = gross vehicle weight, tons
ROLLING RESISTANCE 27

 If tire penetration is not known

Rolling resistance (lb/ton) can be estimated from the information in Table 1
Table1:ROLLING RESISTANCE 28

Steel Tires, plain Crawler Type Track Rubber Tyres, anti-friction bearings
bearings and wheel High Pressure Low Pressure

Type of lb/ton Kg/m ton lb/ton Kg/m ton lb/ton Kg/m ton lb/ton Kg/m ton
Surface
Smooth 40 20 55 27 35 18 45 23
concrete
Good 50-70 25-35 60-70 30-35 40-65 20-33 50-60 25-30
asphalt
Earth, 60-100 30-50 60-80 30-40 40-70 20-35 50-70 25-35
compacted
and
maintened
Earth, 100-150 50-75 80-110 40-55 100-140 50-70 70-100 35-50
poorly
maintened
Earth, 200-250 100-125 140-180 70-90 180-220 90-110 150-200 75-100
muddy not
ROLLING RESISTANCE 29

 Tow Cable Method

 Rolling resistance of a haul road can be approximated by towing a truck or other
vehicle whose gross weight is known along a level section of the haul road at a
uniform (constant) speed.
ROLLING RESISTANCE 30

 Tow cable method (cont’d)

 The tow cable should be equipped with dynamometer or some other device which
will permit determination of the average tension in the cable.
 This tension is the total resistance of the gross weight of the truck.
ROLLING RESISTANCE 31

 Tow cable method

The rolling resistance in pounds per gross

ton is given by

R= P/ W
Where
R = rolling resistance in pounds per ton
P = total tension in tow cable in pounds
W = gross weight of truck in tons
HAUL ROUTE 32

 Travel distance
 Equipment selection is affected by travel distance because of the time factor it
introduces into the production cycle.
 All other factors being equal, increased travel distance will favor the use of high-
speed large capacity units
HAUL ROUTE 33

 Bearing capacity
 A haul route must have sufficient bearing capacity to carry imposed loads.
 On low-bearing-capacity material, this may dictate the selection of track-type
instead of wheel-type running gear.
 The use of special low-ground-pressure machines using wide tracks or balloon
tires may be necessary.
HAUL ROAD CONDITION 34

If haul roads are well maintained rolling resistance is less and production improves.
Good haul roads require graders and water trucks, so there is a cost.
GRADE RESISTANCE 35

 We seldom find a haul road which is level from point of load to point of dump.
GRADE RESISTANCE 36

 Effect of Grade on
Required Tractive Effort
 The force-opposing movement of a vehicle up a frictionless slope is known as
grade resistance.
GRADE RESISTANCE 37

 When a vehicle moves up a sloping road, the total tractive effort required to keep
it moving increases approximately in proportion to the slope of the road.
 If a vehicle moves down a sloping road, the total tractive effort required to keep it
moving reduces approximately in proportion to the slope of the road.
GRADE RESISTANCE 38

 The most common method of expressing a slope is by gradient in percent.

 A 1% slope is one where the surface rises or drops 1 m vertically in a horizontal
distance of 100 m (1/100)
GRADE RESISTANCE 39

Grades are measured in % slope: the ratio between vertical rise (fall) and horizontal
distance in which the rise/fall occurs.
GRADE RESISTANCE 40

Grade example: 5 m in 100 m horizontal travel.

GRADE RESISTANCE 41

 If the surface rises, the slope is defined as plus, whereas if it drops the slope is
defined as minus.
 For slopes of less than 10% (less than 10/100), the effect of grade is to increase,
for a plus slope, or decrease, for a minus slope, the required tractive effort by 20
lb per gross ton of weight for each 1% of grade.
FRICTIONLESS SLOPE- 42

FORCE RELATIONSHIPS
EFFECT OF GRADE ON THE 43

TRACTIVE
Slope(
EFFORT
lb/ton kg/m
OF
slope
VEHICLES
lb/ton kg/m
%) ton (%) ton
1 20.0 10 12 238.4 119.2
2 40.0 20 13 257.8 128.9
3 60.0 30 14 277.4 138.7
4 80.0 40 15 296.6 148.3
5 100.0 50 20 392.3 196.1
6 119.8 59.9 25 485.2 242.6
7 139.8 69.9 30 574.7 287.3
8 159.3 79.6 35 660.6 330.3
9 179.2 89.6 40 742.8 371.4
10 199.0 99.5 45 820.8 410.4
11 218.0 109.0 50 894.4 447.2
GRADE RESISTANCE 44

 For small angles (% grade):

GR = 20 lb/tn x % grade
GRADE RESISTANCE 45

Example: a truck with a 23 ton GVW is moving up a 4 % grade.

What is the force required to overcome grade resistance?
GR = 20lb/tn X 23 tn X 4% grade
GR = 1, 840 lb
GRADE ASSISTANCE 46

Gravity assists the machine when travelling down grade.

That force is referred to as grade assistance.

GRADE ASISTANCE 47

Example: our truck has dumped its load, the NVW is now 12tn and on the return it is
moving down the 4% grade. What is the force required to overcome grade
resistance?

GA = 20lb/tn X 12tn X -4% grade

GA = -960 lb
TOTAL RESISTANCE 48

Total resistance =
Rolling resistance + Grade resistance
TR = RR + GR for going up the slope
TR = RR – GA for going down the slope
Example 1 49

 The haul road from the bottom pit to the fill has an adverse grade of 4%. Wheel-
type hauling units will be used on the job and it is expected that the haul road
rolling resistance will be 100lb/ton.
 What will be the effective grade for the haul cycle? Will the units experience the
same effective grade for the return cycle?
Example 1 (cont’d) 50

100 lb/ton rolling resistance

Equivalent grade (RR) = 20lb/ton = 5%

Effective grade (haul) = 5% RR + 4% GR = 9%

Effective grade (return) = 5% RR – 4% GR = 1%

RR = rolling resistance
GR = grade resistance
THE EFFECT OF GRADE ON 51

LOCATION HAUL ROUTES

 During the life of a project the haul-route grades (and therefore, grade resistance)
may remain constant.
 Example: Hauling trucking aggregate from a rail-yard off-load point to the
concrete batch plant.
THE EFFECT OF GRADE ON 52

LOCATING HAUL ROUTES

 In most cases, the haul-route grades change as the project progresses.
 Example: On a linear highway project, the top of the hills are cut and hauled to
the valleys. Early in the project, the grades are steep and reflect the existing
natural ground. Over the life of the project the grades begin to assume the final
highway profile.
THE EFFECT OF GRADE ON 53

LOCATING HAUL ROUTES

 When the haul-route grades change, the estimator must first study the projects’
mass diagram to determine the direction that the material has to be moved. Then
the natural ground and the final profiles depicted on the plans must be checked to
determine the grades that the equipment will encounter during haul and return
cycles.
THE EFFECT OF GRADE ON 54

LOCATING HAUL ROUTES

 The process of laying out haul routes is critical to machine productivity. If a route
can be found which results in less grade resistance, machine travel speed can be
increased and production will likewise increase.
THE EFFECT OF GRADE ON 55

LOCATING HAUL ROUTES

 In planning a project, a mining engineer/constructor should always check several
haul-route options before deciding on a final construction plan.
AVAILABLE POWER 56

Engine horsepower and operating gear are the primary factors that determine the
power available at the drive wheels (drawbar) of a machine.
AVAILABLE POWER 57

Horsepower involves a rate of doing work.

One hp = 33,000 ft-lb per minute

Therefore, must consider speed at which the machine travels when exerting a given
amount of “pull”.
POWER TRANSMISSION 58

 Most mining/construction equipment is powered by internal combustion engines.

 Diesel engines perform better under heavy duty applications than gasoline
engines.
 Diesel-powered machines are the workhorses of the mining industry.
POWER TRANSMISSION 59

 The characteristics which control the performance differences of gasoline and

diesel engines are:
 Carburetor – used on gasoline engines, is an efficient method of regulating fuel.
 Injector – used on diesel engines, is a better method of regulating fuel.
 Ignition system
 Gasoline engines use spark – ignition
 Diesel engine meters fuel and air for compression ignition.
POWER TRANSIMISSION 60

 Diesel engines have:

1. Longer service lives
2. Lower fuel consumption
3. Presents less of a fire hazard.
POWER TRANSMISSION 61

 The basic equation that governs the mechanics of energy transmission is

expressed as

Tg = Fp x r
Fp = piston force developed by engine
r = radius of crankshaft
Tg = crankshaft torque
POWER TRANSMISSION 62

 The output of the engine at the flywheel at rated revolutions per minute (rpm) can be
expressed as a flywheel horsepower (fwhp). This output can be measured by either
friction belt or brake, hence the names belt horsepower or brake horsepower (bhp).

FwHp = 2pi Ng Fpr/33000 = 2piNgTg/33000

Ng = speed, in rpm (revolutions per minute)
Fp = piston force, lb
r = crankshaft, radius in ft
Tg = crankshaft torque, lb-ft
POWER TRANSMISSION 63

 Flywheel horsepower is a standard rating used by equipment manufacturers to

describe a machine’s power. A manufacturer’s flywheel horsepower rating is
developed based on the engine turning at its rated rpm and driving all accessories
normal to the machine’s standard operational configuration.
POWER TRANSMISSION 64

 The power output from the engine, fwhp, becomes the power input to the
transmission system. This system consists of the drive shaft, a transmission,
planetary gears, drive axles, and drive wheels.
USABLE POWER 65

 Rimpull
The usable power at the point of contact between the tire and the ground for a wheel
machine.
USABLE POWER 66

 Drawbar pull
The available usable power (pull) which a crawler machine can exert on a load
that is being towed.

Usable horsepower = fwHpx E/100

Where E (in %) is the efficiency of the power transmission.
USABLE POWER 67

There are two methods for arriving at a machine’s developed output force, Fw (force
at the wheel)
1. If the whole-body velocity (v) of the machine when operating at governed
engine speed Ng is known for a specific gear, the force at the wheel is given by
Fw = 33,000 x fwhp x E/v (9)
Where v is the velocity in feet per minute, fpm.
USABLE POWER 68

 The difference between rimpull and drawbar is a matter of convention; both

rimpull and drawbar pull are measured in the same units, pounds pull.
 Both rimpull and drawbar pull are subject to adequate traction being developed.
 In the mechanical process of developing rimpull or drawbar pull there are power
losses.
USABLE POWER 69

 For any specified gear or speed torque position on a torque converter.

Usable horsepower = fwhp x E/ 100

Where E (in % is the efficiency of the power transmission.

USABLE POWER 70

1. If the transmission gear ratio and the rolling radius of the wheel are known, v
can be computed and then Fw is determined. This assumes that there is no
slippage in the gear train:
N (drive axle) = Ng x gear ratio
Where N for the drive axle is in rpm:
V = 2n x R(drive wheel) x N (drive axle)
Where R (drive wheel) is the radius of the drive wheel.
USABLE POWER 71

 Normally, the Fw and v are measured and then usable horsepower and, ultimately,
E are back-figured.
 This mechanical efficiency, E, is approximately 90 for direct drive machines and
approximately 80 for torque-converter drives.
COEFFICIENT OF TRACTION 72

 The total energy of an engine in any unit of equipment designed primarily for
pulling a load can be converted into tractive effort only if sufficient traction can
be developed between the driving wheels or tracks and the haul surface.
 If there is insufficient traction, the full power of the engine cannot be used, for the
wheels or tracks will slip on the surface.
COEFFICIENT OF TRACTION 73

 The coefficient of traction maybe defined as:

The factor by which the total load on a driving tire or track is multiplied in order to
determine the maximum possible tractive force between the tire or track and the
surface just before slippage occurs.
COEFFICIENT OF TRACTION 74

 Usable force = coefficent of traction x weight on powered running gear

Coefficient of traction 75

For Truck Type Tractor – For 4 wheel drive Tractor For 2 Wheel Tractor –
The usual Tractor Weight - Use Weight on the Use the weight on the
drivers shown on spec drivers shown on the spec
sheet or 40% of VGW sheet or approximately
50% of VGW
Surface Rubber Tires Crawler Tracks
Dry, rough concrete 0.80-1.00 0.45
Dry, clay loam 0.50-0.70 0.90
Wet, Clay loam 0.40-0.50 0.70
Wet sand and gravel 0.30-0.40 0.35
Loose, dry sand 0.20-0.30 0.30
Dry snow 0.20 0.15-0.35
Ice 0.10 0.10-0.25
EXAMPLE 2 76

 Assume that the rubber-tired tractor has a total weight of 18 000 lb on the two
driving tires. The maximum rimpull in low gear is 9 000 lb. If the tractor is
operating in wet sand, with a coefficient of traction of 0.30, the maximum
possible rimpull prior to slippage of the tires will be
0.30 x 18.000lb = 5.400lb < 9.000lb
 Note: Regardless of the power of the engine, not more than 5,400 lb of tractive
effort can be used because of the slippage of the wheels.
Example 3 77

 A wheel-tractor scraper is used on a road project. When the project initially

begins, the scraper will experience high rolling and grade resistance at one work
area. The rimpull required to maneuver in this work area is 42,000 lb. In the
fully loaded condition 52% of the total vehicle weight is on the drive wheels. The
fully loaded vehicle weight is 230,880 lb. What minimum value of the coefficient
of traction.
Example 3 (cont`d) 78

 between the scrapper wheels and the travelling surface that is needed to maintain
maximum possible travel speed?
Weight on the drive wheels = 0.52 x 230,880 lb = 120,058 lb
Minimum required coefficient of traction = 42,000 lb/120,058 lb = 0.35
ALTITUDE EFFECT ON 79

USABLE POWER
 Always remember that flywheel horsepower rating is based on tests conducted at
standard conditions:
Standard conditions
 At temperature of 60degrees (F)
 Sea level barometric pressure of 29.92 in 92 in (Hg)
ALTITUDE ON USABLE POWER 80

 For naturally aspirated engines operation at altitudes above sea level will cause a
significant decrease in available engine power. This power decrease is caused by
the decrease in air density associated with increased altitude.
ALTITUDE EFFECT ON USABLE 81

POWER
 Naturally aspirated engines:
 Two-cycle diesel engine, reduce rated rimpull by 1.5% per 1,000 ft between sea
level and 6,000 ft. Above 6,000 ft reduce rimpull by 3% per 1,000ft.
 Four-cycle gasoline and diesel engines-reduce rated rimpull by 3% for every
1,000 ft above 1,000 ft.
ALTITUDE EFFECT ON USABLE 82

POWER
 Turbocharged engines:
 Two – and four cycle diesel engines – usually very little or no loss in rated power
up to 10,000 ft.

Turbocharger is a mechanical component mounted on the engine which forces air to

the piston.
Example 4 83
 Engines without turbocharger rely on the suction of the piston to supply
the air for combustion. For a four cycle engine with 100 fwhp at sea level,
what is its usable power at 10,000 ft above sea level?
Sea level power = 100hp
Loss due to Altitude= 0.03 *100(10000-1000) = -27hp
1000
Usable power = 73 hp
Altitude Effect on Usable Power 84

 A general formula for estimating purposes which expresses the effect of both
temperature and altitude on four cycle engines follows;
HP available = ratedhp*Pactual/Pstdsq.rt*(Tstd/Tactual)
P actual = altitude at which machine will be operated in in. Hg
Pstd = Standard condition altitude usually sea level, 29,92 in Hg.
Tactual = Rankine Temp. at which the machine will be operated
Tstd = Standard Temp. in Rankine units usually 60 deg. Feh. Which equals 520
deg. Rankine
ALTITUDE EFFECT ON 85

USABLE POWER
 Average Barometric Pressures for various altitudes.
 Table 1

Alt. 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10000
above
sea level
(ft)

Barometr 29.92 28.86 27.82 26.8 25.82 24.87 23.95 23.07 22.21 21.36 20.55
ic
Pressure
(in. Hg)
Example 5 86
 A tractor is powered by a four-cycle diesel engine. When tested under
standard conditions, the engine developed 130 fwhp. What is the probable
horse power at altitude of 3,660 ft, where the average daily temperature is
720F?
 Fwhp sts condition = 130hp
 Pstd = 29.92 in Hg
 Pactual = 26.15 in
 Tstd = 520
 Tactual = 460 +72 = 532
 Actual HP = 112.7 hp
RIMPULL 87

 If the rimpull of a vehicle is not known, it may be determined from the following
equation:

Rimpull = (377 x hp x E)/ speed (mph) (lb)

Example 6 88

 The efficiency of most tractors and trucks will range from 0.8 to 0.85. For
a rubbered tractor with a 140-hp engine and a maximum speed of 3.25 mph
in the first gear, tire the rimpull will be
Rimpull = (375 x 140 x 0.85)/ 3.25 = 13,730 lb
The maximum rimpull in all ranges for this tractor will be as follows:
Maximum Gear Speeds of the tractor 89

Gear Speed (mph) Rimpull (lbs)

First 3.25 13.730
Second 7.10 6,285
Third 12.48 3,576
Fourth 21.54 2,072
Fifth 33.86 1,319
EXAMPLE 7 90

 If a tractor whose maximum rimpull in the first gear is 13,730lb, weighs 12,4
tons, and is operated up a haul road with a slope of 2% and a rolling resistance of
100lb per ton, what is the available pull (lb) for towing a load?
Example 7 (cont’d) 91

Max rimpull = 13,730

Pull required to overcome grade,
12,4 ton x 20 lb/ton x 2% = 496 lb
Pull required to overcome rolling resistance,
12.4 ton x 100 lb/ton = 1,240 lb
Total pull to be deducted
496 lb + 1,240 lb = 1,736 lb
Pull available for towing a load = 11, 994lb
POWER OUTPUT AND TORQUE 92

Typical curves for brake horsepower (bhp) and torque as engine increases its
crankshaft speed to the governed rpm value.
The important feature of this plot is the shape of the torque curve. Maximum torque
is not obtained at maximum rpm. When a machine is subjected to a momentary
overload and this power is brought to bear, we “lug” the engine. The rpm drops
but the torque goes up, keeping the engine from stalling under the overload.
POWER OUTPUT AND TORQUE 93

 Machines can be purchased with either a direct drive (standard) or torque

converter drive. With a direct drive machine, the operator must manually shift
gears to match the engine output to the resisting load. The difference in power
available when considering maximum torque and torque at governed speed is the
machine’s operating range for a given gear.
 A torque converter is a device which adjusts power output to match the load.