OBJECTIVE

While the goal of an aviation technician is to maintain aircraft

in such a manner as to assure safe flight, you must also be
concerned with creating a safe environment while an aircraft
is on the ground.
 CHAPTER 13
Ground Handling And Servicing
Section A
Shop Safety

Section B
Safety On The Flight Line

Section C
Ground Servicing Equipment
 Section A
Shop Safety
A-Electrical Fire Safety
B-Radiation Hazard
1-Radiation Hazard
2-Hazard Communication Program
3-Material Safety Data Sheets
4-Container Labeling
C-Safety Around Compressed Gases
D-Safety Around Machine Tools
E-Welding
F-Fire Safety
1-Fire Protection
2-Classification Of Fires
3-Types Of Fire Extinguishers
A- Water Extinguishers
B-Co2 Extinguishers
C- Dry Powder Extinguisher .
D-Halogenated Hydrocarbon Extinguishers:
4-Checking Fire Extinguishers
g-Jacking And Hoisting
A-Jacking
B-Hoisting
SHOP SAFETY
-You must avoid handling electrical equipment
while standing on a wet surface or wearing wet
shoes.
-Make sure that all electrical equipment is
connected with three-wire extension cords of
adequate capacity
-Not use cords that are frayed, or that have any of
the wires exposed, and be sure to replace any
plugs that are cracked.
-A three-conductor cord
-The black insulated wire carries the power,
-White wire is the ground and is connected to
the earth ground where the power enters the building.
-The green wire is the equipment ground and connects
the housing of the equipment to the earth ground
A-ELECTRICAL FIRE SAFETY
-Never overload extension cords or wall outlets.
-always make sure electrical cords are in good shape
before using them.
1-Radiation hazard
-The balance weights on the flight controls of many
large aircraft contain depleted uranium 238

-Radioactive tritium is used in luminescent devices

such as exit signs

-Smoke detectors contain radioactive americium

241.

-If particles of radioactive material are accidentally

swallowed or inhaled, serious long-term health
consequences can result
2-HAZARD COMMUNICATION PROGRAM
-The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

*Right-To-Know laws, require maintenance shops to

develop :

-A formal written program stating compliance and training

procedures.

-A complete inventory of all hazardous materials on the

premises.

-A Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for each item listed on

the inventory.

-Labeling of all pertinent containers and equipment.

3-MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS
A Material Safety Data Sheet consists of nine basic
sections:
1.Product identification including trade name, and
the address and emergency phone number of the
manufacturer/supplier.
2.Principal ingredients including percentages of
mixture by weight.
3. Physical data ( boiling point, vapor pressure,
solubility )
4 . Fire and explosion hazard data.
5 . Reactivity data including stability and
incompatibility with other substances.
6 . First aid and health hazard data.
7 . Ventilation and personal protection.
8 . Storage and handling precautions.
9 . Spill leak and disposal procedures.
3-MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS
4-CONTAINER Labeling
-A typical hazard label consists of four color-coded
diamonds arranged into one large diamond.
-The colors used in the table are red, blue, yellow,
and white.
-Red indicates a material's flammability hazard.
-The blue area of the label rates a substance's
health hazard
-Yellow area of the label rates a substance's
reactivity
-The white area of the label indicates a personal
protection index
-A zero indicates stable materials
C-SAFETY AROUND COMPRESSED GASES
.For example, if a concentrated stream of compressed air is blown
across a cut in the skin, it is possible for the air to enter the
bloodstream and cause severe injury or death.

The safety procedures that must be observed

1-Be very careful when using compressed air not to blow dirt or chips
into the face of anyone standing nearby.

2-you should wear eye protection when using pneumatic tools.

3-Always keep air hoses and fitting in good condition.

4-Wheel assemblies being worked on should be placed in a safety cage

to minimize injury

5-Always use calibrated tire gauges,

6-Make certain to use a regulator that is in good working condition.

7-You should make sure that all gas cylinders are properly supported
C-SAFETY AROUND COMPRESSED GASES
8-A common method of securing high pressure cylinders in storage is
by chaining them to a building.

9-A cap should be securely installed on any tank that is not connected
into a system.

10-It is extremely important that oxygen cylinders be treated with

special care

11-You must never allow oxygen to come in contact with petroleum

products such as oil or grease

12-Never use an oily rag, or tools that are oily or greasy, to install a
fitting or a regulator on an oxygen cylinder.

13-Use only an approved MIL Specification thread lubricant when

assembling oxygen system components.

14-Use only an approved leak check solution that contains no oil.

C-SAFETY AROUND COMPRESSED GASES
Reasonable safety precautions are observed handled.
Oxygen and nitrogen are often found in aviation
maintenance shops stored in steel cylinders under a
pressure of around 2,000 psi.

These cylinders have brass valves screwed into them. If a

cylinder should be knocked over and the valve broken off,
the escaping of high-pressure gas would propel the tank
like a rocket.
C-SAFETY AROUND COMPRESSED GASES
The safety procedures that must be observed,
1- you should make sure that all gas cylinders are
properly supported. A common method of
securing

2-high pressure cylinders in storage is by chaining

them to a building.

3- a cap should be securely

installed on any tank that is not
connected into a system.

4-Do not use any machine tools

with which you are not familiar,
or any tool whose safety features
you are unfamiliar with.
D-SAFETY AROUND MACHINE TOOLS
5-The guards and safety covers protect the operator they
must never be removed or disabled.

6-Always make sure a cutting tool is sharp and serviceable

before you use it.

7-Be sure that the material being worked is securely

clamped to the drill press table before you begin drilling
a hole

8-Never leave a chuck key in a drill

motor or a drill press

9-Always wear eye protection when

using power tools, or when you must
enter areas where they are being used
D-SAFETY AROUND MACHINE TOOLS
10-You should always wear the appropriate clothing when
in the shop

11-if your hair long, tie it back to keep "it out of the way.

12-Disconnect the tool from its

power source When adjusting or
changing the blade

13-Never be in a hurry around

power tool

14-Never use a tool for a purpose

for which it is not intended.

15-Think before using any tool.

E-WELDING
The safety procedures that must be observed
1-Welding should be performed only in areas that
are designated for the purpose

2-If a part needs to be welded, remove it and take

it to the welding area.

3-Welding areas should be equipped with proper

tables, , ventilation, tool storage, and fire
extinguishing equipment.

4-If welding is to be accomplished in a hangar, no

other aircraft should be within 35 feet of the
hanger

5-the area should be roped off and clearly

marked.
F-FIRE SAFETY
The key to fire safety is a knowledge of what causes fire,
how to prevent them, and how to put them out.
The safety procedures that must be observed
1-All combustible materials should be stored in proper
containers & in proper areas

2-They should be stored in a cool, ventilated area outside

of the shop.

3-Overspray should never be swept with a dry broom,

4-Always flush these combustible products with water

before sweeping them.

5-Always be aware of the possibility of fire and provide for

exits when putting aircraft in the hangar.

6-Be sure that fire extinguishers are properly serviced,

clearly marked and never obstructed.
1-FIRE PROTECTION
-You must take every precaution to prevent fires where
these materials are present
-Should also be aware of the proper procedures to
observe if a fire does start.
Definition
A fire is a chemical reaction between a material and
oxygen, in which the material is reduced to its
elements with the release of a great deal of heat.
Three conditions must be met for a fire to occur are :-

Oxygen

heat fuel
1-FIRE conditions
1-First, there must be fuel, which is any material
that combines with oxygen.
2- Second, there must be a supply of oxygen.
3-Third, the temperature of the fuel must be
raised to its kindling point, which is the
temperature at which combustion occurs.
Definition
Kindling point : the temperature at which
combustion occurs.
2-CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES
There are four classes of fire.
1- class-A fire involves combustible materials such as
wood, cloth, paper, Green triangle

2- class-B fire involves flammable or combustible liquids

such as oil,
turbine fuel. a carburetor or intake fire
Red square

3- class-C fire involves energized electrical equipment

such as battery.
Blue circle

4- class-D fire is a fire in a flammable metal such as

magnesium.
Brown star
3-TYPES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
A fire is extinguished by either cooling the fuel below its
kindling temperature or by depriving it of oxygen.

All fire extinguishers work on one of these principles.

Types of fire extinguishers are :-
A- Water extinguishers (Class A)
B-CO2 extinguishers (Class B/ Class C)
C- Dry powder extinguisher (Class B-C-D)
D-Halogenated hydrocarbon extinguishers:
(Class A-B-C-D)
1-Effective extinguishing
2-Not harmful to human
3-Use for cabin fire & engine fire.
4-CHECKING FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
-All fire extinguishers should have seals over their
operating handles to indicate if a unit has been
discharged.
-The content of a CO2
extinguisher is determined by its
weight
-Nitrogen-pressurized
extinguishers have pressure
gauges
G-JACKING AND HOISTING
A- JACKING
The safety procedures that must be
observed
1-You should follow the aircraft
manufacturer's instructions in detail..
2-Many aircraft have stressed panels that must be
installed before an aircraft is jacked, hoisted, or
moved.
3-When using this method, never place the jack
under the brake housing or in any location that is
not specifically approved by the manufacturer
4-It is usually recommended that both wheels NOT
be lifted off the floor at the same time when
jacking from the landing gear struts
5-The wheels that are not jacked should be
securely chocked.
A- JACKING
6-Be sure that screw type safety collars of the jack
are screwed down as the airplane is raised
7-Jacks that do not have the screw-type safety
usually have holes drilled in the shaft so lock pins
can be inserted to guard against the jack retracting
8-Make sure to place enough weight in the stand, or
tie the tail to a tiedown ring embedded in the
hangar floor
9-Guard against any movement within the aircraft
when it is on jacks,
## Before lowering the aircraft
1-Be sure to remove work stands, ladders and other
equipment.
2-Be sure that the landing gear is down and locked before
the aircraft is lowered evenly.
3-Be sure that the oleo struts do not bind and hold the
aircraft.
4-Always use only the equipment and jacking methods
approved by the manufacturer
B-HOISTING
The safety procedures that must be observed
1-Follow the manufacturer's recommendations in
detail.

2-Use a hoist of sufficient capacity

3-Where necessary, place spreader bars between the

cables to prevent side loads on the attachment
points.
 Section B
A-Safety On The Flight Line
B-Hearing Protection
C-Foreign Object Damage (FOD)
D-Safety Around Helicopters
E-Tie down Procedures
1-Seaplanes
2-Skiplanes
Helicopters
F-Engine Starting Procedures
1-Reciprocating Engines
2-Hand Propping
3-Turbine Engines
A-Hot Starts
B-Hung Starts
G-Turbine Engine Start Procedures
H-Taxiing Aircraft
I-Towing
K-Helicopter Ground Handling
SAFETY ON THE FLIGHT LINE
-HEARING PROTECTION
High-noise area. Continued exposure to this noise
can permanently damage your ears and impair
your hearing.

Should wear some type of hearing

protection. This can be either
external protectors similar to
a pair of large earphones,
or internal protectors
-FOREIGN OBJECT DAMAGE (FOD)
The safety procedures that must be observed

1-If foreign objects such as nuts,

bolts, and safety wire can easily cause
damage to any aircraft engine
& can cause serious injury

2-It is extremely important that an

airport flight line be kept clean

3-Should develop the habit of picking up all

loose hardware and rags you find on the ramp
and deposit them in a suitable container.

4-Be aware that propellers and jet intakes

make aircraft operation areas extremely
dangerous places.
5-Person should be stationed on the ground to warn
anyone in the area

6-Be sure that you have the attention of the person in the
cockpit

7-When an engine is running both the front and the rear.

Are low-pressure area can draw a person into the
engine& it Can certainly ingest such items as hats,
clipboards, and loose items of clothing.

8-Behind the aircraft in the exhaust area can cause severe

damage to both people and equipment
-SAFETY AROUND HELICOPTERS
The safety procedures that must be observed
1-Be sure Personnel must often approach and
depart When doing this,

2-be sure to stay in the pilot's field of vision.

3-It is your responsibility to watch that the

passengers do not endanger either themselves or
the helicopter
-TIEDOWN PROCEDURES
A great deal of A heavy wind damage can be
minimized if proper protective measures are
taken.
The safety procedures that must be observed
1-An aircraft should be securely tied down and its
controls firmly locked in place
2-Control surface battens are often used to hold a
control surface in a streamline position. should
be lined with one-inch foam rubber.
*Furthermore, battens should be painted red and
have a long red streamer attached so they are
easy to see.
This helps prevent a pilot from inadvertently
leaving them on the controls prior to a flight.
 # 1# If a tail wheel aircraft is tied down
-its elevator should be locked in the full up
position so the wind forces the tail down and vise
versa.
3-If a severe wind is expected, spoiler boards can
be secured to the top surface of a wing to
destroy lift.
( Special care must be taken when securing a set of
spoilers
4-All doors and windows should be secured so they cannot
be blown open.

5-All engine openings should be covered to keep blowing

dirt from entering the engine compartment and the
engine itself

6-Aircraft should be secured so that it is headed as nearly

into the wind

7-Aircraft should be secured as much separation between

it and adjacent aircraft as possible.

8-When parked, an aircraft's nose wheel should be locked

in a straight ahead position

9-Tiedowns should be secured to each wing and to the

tail.

10-Tiedowns should be secured by chain, ropes (Nylon is

the strongest material for rope …
11-Tiedowns should be secured with a bowline knot.

12-If chains are used, they must be secured to an aircraft

by passing the chain through the tiedown ring

13-Airplanes with nose wheels should be tied down with

one rope through the nose gear tie down ring and two
ropes through the tail tie down ring.

14-The ropes from the tail should pull away at a 45 degree

angle to each side of the tail

15-Make sure that the wheels are blocked with

properly fitting chocks in front of and behind the
wheels.
1-SEAPLANES
The safety procedures that must be observed
1-Seaplanes can be secured by towing them into shallow
water or onto a beach or by securing them to a dock or
tree.
2-If left in the water, some of the float compartments
should be flooded to add weight and assist the tiedown
ropes in holding the aircraft.
2-SKIPLANES
The safety procedures that must be observed
1-Loose snow can be packed around the skis, then
doused with water so they freeze in.
2-The tiedown ropes can also be frozen into ice to
secure them. One method of doing this is through
the use of a deadman anchor
3-HELICOPTERS
The safety procedures that must be observed
1-it extremely important that the manufacturer's
operational manual be followed in detail when
securing a helicopter.
2-The helicopter should be headed into the
anticipated wind,
3-The helicopter should be clear of any other
helicopters, airplanes, or buildings by at least a
rotor span.
4-The skids should be securely tied to ground
tiedown facilities by attaching ropes to the points
specified by the helicopter manufacturer

5-If the helicopter is mounted on wheels, the brakes

should be set and chocks placed in front of and
behind the wheels

6-Position the main and tail rotor blades and secure

them to the helicopter structure by the method
described in the operations manual
-ENGINE STARTING PROCEDURES
be sure to study the procedures in the appropriate
airplane flight manual and get instruction from an
experienced operator.
- Position the aircraft to head into the prevailing
wind to ensure adequate air flow over the engine
for cooling purposes
1-RECIPROCATING ENGINES
1-Insure that the propeller area is clear.

2-The aircraft should not be parked in an area of

loose gravel

3-Be sure that the blast from the propeller does

not blow dirt into any hangar or building or onto
another aircraft.

4-You should always have a carbon dioxide fire

extinguisher of adequate capacity available.

5-Fire guard must be stationed near the engine

Induction system fires are the type which occur
the best procedure is to continue cranking and
start the engine if possible
Definition
Hydraulic lock. With hydraulic lock, oil fills the lower
cylinders to a point that the piston cannot make its
compression stroke.

-To be sure that none of the cylinders have a hydraulic

lock, the engine should be turned through by hand, with
the ignition off, until all of the cylinders have passed
through their compression strokes.

-For starting and ground operation, these controls (a

carburetor-heat or an alternate-air ) should be in the
cold position, because heated air is not filtered.

-A flooded reciprocating engine can be cleared of excessive

fuel by placing the mixture control in the idle cutoff
position.
2-HAND PROPPING
Hand propping of aircraft engines is a procedure
with which all technicians should be familiar
It is important that no person ever attempt to prop
an aircraft until being thoroughly checked out in
the procedure
The safety procedures that must be observed
1-One important aspect of propping an aircraft is
to be sure that the person in the cockpit is
thoroughly familiar with the aircraft and that
clear communication
2-Check to be sure the brakes are actually holding
by attempting to move the aircraft
3-If the propeller must be rotated to check for a
hydraulic lock, or turned backwards to clear an
over-prime condition, call out SWITCH OFF.
4-Do not turn the propeller until you hear the
answer, SWITCH OFF
5-When ready to pull the propeller to start the engine,
call out the word CONTACT
6-If the person in the cockpit has all of the controls
properly set, they reply CONTACT and then turn the
ignition switch on.
7-When actually pulling on the propeller, be sure:-
a-Your footing is secure
b-Do not stand on wet grass or sandy ramp surfaces.
c-Stand dose enough to the propeller that you are
slightly overbalanced away from the engine rather
than into it.
d-Grasp the propeller by laying your palm over the
blade
e-Do not grip your finger around the trailing edge of
the blade
f-Even though the control operator has answered your
SWITCH OFF, treat the propeller with caution.
g-Make trouble shoot for cause
3-TURBINE ENGINES
The extremely high cost of turbine aircraft, and the
possibility of severe damage in the event of an
improper start
One of the problems that can occur when starting a
turbine engine is the lack of sufficient electrical
power it can be minimized through the use of a
ground power unit (GPU)
Improper starts are usually one of two types,:-
1-hot starts
2-hung starts.
A-HOT STARTS
A hot start is one in which ignition occurs when
there is an excessively rich fuel/air mixture.
. To minimize the possibility of a hot start:-
The exhaust gas temperature, turbine inlet
temperature, or interstate turbine temperature
gauge must be monitored during a start.
The engine should be shut off immediately.
Consult the engine manufacturer's maintenance
manual for inspection or overhaul requirements
following hot starts.
B-HUNG STARTS
A hung, or false, start is often the result of
insufficient power to the starter or the starter
cutting off before the engine reaches its self-
accelerating speed.
Anytime a hung start occurs, the engine should be
shut down and the cause of the problem found and
corrected.
-TURBINE ENGINE START PROCEDURES
The safety procedures that must be observed
1-Manufacturer's checklist should always be
followed.
2-Personnel performing engine run and taxi must be
thoroughly checked out on the equipment they are
operating.
3-Certain all safety equipment is in place, and
always be aware of emergency procedures in the
event of fire
4-Be sure the engine inlets are clear and that the
area in front of the inlets is clear of loose objects
5-Check that all doors are closed, and that the area
behind the engines is clear.
6-Turn on the aircraft's rotating beacon and signal
the fireguard that you are starting an engine.
7-Follow manual for starting then
8-When engine speed is self-accelerating, release
the start switch and monitor the engine
instruments (EGT ,TIT ,ITT) for proper indications

exhaust gas temperature,

turbine inlet temperature, or
interstate turbine temperature
-TAXIING AIRCRAFT
Airplanes and helicopters movement on the
ground
The safety procedures that must be observed
1-Only qualified persons authorized to taxi
aircraft may actually taxi an aircraft.

2-Before starting an engine, be sure that the areas

in front and behind the aircraft are clear of
people and equipment.

3-A properly qualified instructor should check out

a maintenance technician before taxiing a new or
different aircraft.

4-it is a good policy to station signalmen where

they can watch the wings or rotor and any
obstructions.
5-Important that all personnel use the same
signals and understand exactly what the signals
mean to avoid misunderstanding at a crucial
time.
6-The signalman has the responsibility of
remaining in a position that is visible from the
cockpit

7-Make sure that you can see the pilot's eyes while
directing him

8-You typically must receive a clearance from

ground control before you begin taxiing
Once the aircraft is in motion, immediately tap the
brakes to insure they are working properly.
9-After testing the brakes, test the nose gear steering
system to make sure it is operating

10-When taxiing in strong winds, proper use of the aileron

and elevator controls will help maintain control of the
airplane.

11-When taxiing into a quartering headwind, the aileron on

the upwind side should be held up.

12-When taxiing an airplane with a quartering tailwind, the

elevators and upwind aileron should be held in the down
position.

37-When taxiing an airplane with a quartering

tailwind, the elevators and
B: upwind aileron should be held in the down
position
*-TAILWHEEL AIRCRAFT
The safety procedures that must be observed
1-An operator must alternately turn the nose from
side to side in a series of S-turns during taxi to
avoid objects or hazards in the aircraft's path.
2-The abrupt use of brakes should be avoided on a
tail wheel aircraft
3-To avoid losing control of the aircraft, you must
exercise extreme caution when taxiing a tail wheel
aircraft in crosswind conditions.
13-Weathervaning tendency is greatest when taxiing
B: a tailwheel-type airplane in a direct crosswind
* LIGHT SIGNALS
The meanings of the light signals that are used by control
towers to control the operation of aircraft on the ground
are:
1-Steady red – Stop

2-Flashing red -- Taxi clear of the landing area

3-Flashing green--Cleared to taxi

4-Steady green -- OK to take off

5-Alternating red and green --,exercise extreme caution

6-Flashing white -- Return to starting point

I-TOWING
Moving an aircraft without using its engines.
Large aircraft are towed with a tractor, or special
towing vehicle, and are connected to the vehicle
with a special tow bar.
The safety procedures that must be observed
1-Extreme care must be used to avoid towing an
aircraft too fast
2-Be sure that there is always sufficient clearance
between the wings and any obstructions.
3-When an aircraft is being towed, a qualified
person should be in the cockpit to operate the
aircraft brakes when needed
4-Extra personnel should be assigned to watch the
wing tips and tail for clearance between other
objects.

5-When towing, it is easy to exceed these limits of

The nose gear limit
6-The locking device must always be disconnected
when an aircraft is towed.
7-Remember to reset the lock after removing the
tow bar from the aircraft
8-Persons riding in the aircraft should not attempt
to steer the nose wheel when a tow bar is attached
to the aircraft.
9-You should never move an airplane by pulling on
its propeller.
10-You should always use a tow bar.
11-Remove the tow bar from the nose strut and
place it beside the nose wheel, or stow it
12-When pushing an aircraft, be sure to push only
at points that are specified by the aircraft
manufacturer.
13-Never push on control surfaces, nor in the center
of a strut.
-HELICOPTER GROUND HANDLING
The safety procedures that must be observed
1-To move a helicopter on the ground, small wheels
are attached to its skids and the helicopter is
raised off the ground onto the wheels.
2-Some helicopters do utilize wheels as landing
gear. In this situation, are towed in much the same
way as fixed-wing aircraft.
 Section C
A-Ground Servicing Equipment
B-Electrical Ground Power Units
C-Hydraulic Power Units
D-Oxygen Servicing Equipment
1-Service Carts
2-The "Cascade" System
E-Aircraft Fueling
1-Characteristics Of Aviation Fuels
2-Detonation
3-Preignition
4-Performance Numbers
5-Turbine Fuels
6-Color Coding Of Turbine Fuels
7-Additional Markings
8-Fire Hazards
9-Static Electricity
10Contamination Control
A-Water
B-Surfactants
C-Miscellaneous Contaminants

11-Fuellng Procedures
A-From A Fuel Truck
B-Under Storage System
12-Defueling
13-Review Of Safety Procedures
A-GROUND SERVICING EQUIPMENT

Ground power units (GPUs) are available for

supplying power when the engines are not
running. &, or provide cabin heating or cooling for
aircraft.
B-ELECTRICAL GROUND POWER UNITS
Most airports are equipped with battery carts and
cables that can be used to assist an aircraft's
battery.

For large aircraft, a large self-propelled generator

unit is used to assist in starting the aircraft.

Most turbojet transport category aircraft carry an

auxiliary power unit (APU).
C-HYDRAULIC POWER UNITS
-Many aircraft have hydraulically retracted landing
gear that must be periodically tested for operation
To do this a hydraulic power unit (mules) is
connected
-Before connecting a hydraulic power supply make
sure:-
*That all of the lines are clean so no dirt or
contamination gets into the aircraft's system.
a different hydraulic power unit must be used with
correct type of fluid
D-OXYGEN SERVICING EQUIPMENT
-Most of these aircraft are pressurized, emergency.
oxygen must be carried in the event the
pressurization equipment fails
-The cylinders are painted green and labeled
"Aviator's Breathing Oxygen."
1-SERVICE CARTS
-Oxygen systems are typically serviced from oxygen
carts, which usually carry six high-pressure bottles
of oxygen and one bottle of nitrogen.
2-THE "CASCADE" System
The safety procedures that must be observed
1-When servicing an oxygen system always use
two people, one to control the flow at the cart
and one to monitor the pressure in the aircraft
system.
2-Keep the oxygen cart from having several
bottles with pressures too low to charge the
system.

3-You should avoid parking an oxygen cart beside

a hydraulic mule,

4-You should avoid parking an oxygen cart beside

petroleum products
E-AIRCRAFT Fuelling
Steps must be taken at all levels to assure a clean
supply of the proper fuel is delivered to an
aircraft.
Types of fuel
1.Aviation gasoline 2. turbine fuel
Characteristics of aviation gasoline are
-high heat value
- high volatility
Volatility :which is a measure of a fuel's ability to
change from a liquid into a vapor.
2-DETONATION
-Detonation: is the explosive, uncontrolled burning of

the fuel-air charge.

It occurs when the fuel burns unevenly or explosively

because of excessive cylinder temperature or
pressure in the cylinder and decrease in engine
power
Reasons:-
1-Detonation can happen any time an engine over­
heats.
2-Detonation can occur if an improper fuel grade is
used
3-PREIGNITION
preignition takes place when the fuel/air mixture
ignites too soon
Reasons :-
is caused by residual hot spots in the cylinder
4-PERFORMANCE NUMBERS
-Fuels are numerically graded according to their
ability to resist detonation
Aviation gasoline's are identified as
Avgas 80, 100, and l00LL.
-Although 100LL performs the same as grade 100
fuel; the "LL" indicates it has a low lead content.
*dibromide added to aviation gasoline To scavenge
lead oxide from the cylinder combustion chambers
*Tetraethyl lead is added to aviation gasoline to
improve the gasoline’s performance in the engine
-Color CODING OF AVIATION Gasoline
Were four grades of aviation gasoline, each
identified by color.
1- 80/87-Red
2-91/96-Blue
3-100/130-Green
4-115/145-Purple
The color code for the aviation gasoline currently
available is as follows:
1-80-Red
2-lOO-Green
3-100LL-Blue
Properties types Military Civilian

This is the primary fuel for the civilian jet Kerosene JP-5 Jet A
, aircraft
it Has high flash point and low volatility and
freezes at -40c(40f) that good to fly at high
altitude
This is the primary fuel for the civilian jet Kerosene JP-5 Jet A-1
, aircraft
it Has high flash point and low volatility and
freezes at -47c(–52F
,This is the primary fuel used by military forces Wide-cut JP-4 Jet B
because its availability , flash point lower Kerosene &(
freezes at -50c(–58F Jet A and vapor pressure )gasoline
is high
6-Color CODING OF TURBINE FUELS
Unlike the various grades of aviation gasoline that
are dyed different colors to aid in recognition,
all turbine fuels are colorless or have a light straw
color

7-ADDITIONAL MARKINGS
all aviation gasoline's are identified by name, using
white letters on a red background.
 6-Color CODING OF TURBINE FUELS
 Unlike the various grades of aviation gasoline that are dyed different
colors to aid in recognition, all turbine fuels are colorless or have a light
straw color
8-FIRE HAZARDS

All persons should be aware of the danger and be

trained on how to handle fuel.

VOLATILITY
Because of the flammable nature of fuel vapors, no fueling
or defueling should be done in a hangar or an enclosed
area
-if the fuel is spilled it must be wiped by washed away with
water ,never be swept away with a dry broom

-the aviation fuel should be storing in approved

container ,these container kept closed and in cool area
9-STATIC ELECTRICITY
One source of ignition that may not be so
obvious is the sparks created by static
electricity.

To minimize this hazard, it is necessary to

eliminate static electrical charges by
bonding and grounding all components of
the fueling system together with static
wires
CONTAMINATION CONTROL
As a general rule, the ease with which a fuel can hold
contaminants varies with the fuel's viscosity

-the more common form of aviation fuel contamination

1-water 2-solid contaminant 3-surfactants 4-micro-
organisms 5-Miscellaneous contamination

Viscosity is the property of a fluid that describes its thickness or

resistance to flow.
temperatures can cause water ice crystals that can then
accumulate and interrupt fuel flow.
A-WATER
-Water condenses out of the air in storage tanks, fuel trucks, A\C fuel
tank.
-Water can enter an airport fuel through leaks in the seal ,or it brought
when the fuel is delivered.
-to minimize the amount of water entering the system by inspection
and maintenance of equipment
-water can be detect in many way
-free water on the ground storage tank by water finding paste to the
end of the gauge
-water can removed by providing adequate filtration or separation
equipment

Water can severely restrict fuel flow by plugging aircraft fuel filters and
other mechanisms.
-all storage and fuel truck tank bottom and filter \separation sump
should be checked for water and any contamination removed in daily
basis.
B- solid contaminants:
-solid contamination do not dissolve in the fuel
such as rust iron, dirt.
-the best method to control solids to limit their
introduction into fuel
1-rustly line ,tanks should not use
2-cover and cap should be kept closed until ready
to begin pumping
-To check the fuel from contamination Millipore
test should be performed ,
C- microbial growth:
microbial growth live in the free water which accumulate
in the sump and the bottom of the storage and aircraft
tanks.
-the effect of micro-organisms
1-formulation of a sludge or slim which can foul the
filter
2- emulsification of the fuel
3-creat corrosive compound and odors
-the effective method to prevent their growth is to
eliminate the water by introducing fuel additive during
fueling.
d-SURFACTANTS
-consist of soap and detergent material occur in
the fuel or introduced during refueling or
handling.
-surfactant are soluble in water than fuel
-Can cause fuel gauge problems.
-The common danger signals of a surface
contaminated facility are:
1-Excess quantities of dirt and/or free water going
through the system.
2-Discovery of sudsy-like liquid in tank and
filter/separator sumps.
3-Malfunctioning of filter/separators.
4-Slow effective settling rates in storage tanks.
e-MISCELLANEOUS CONTAMINANTS (inter mixing of
grades or types of fuel)
Can include either soluble or insoluble materials or
both.
The fuel can contaminant by mixing with other
grades or type s of fuel concentrations in rust
and sludge deposits, by additives, or by any
other of a number of soluble materials.
-the micro-organism, surfactant ,water are human
error
-the possibility of human error can never be
eliminated but can minimized through carful
fueling facility , good operation procedure
,adequate training.
Fuelling Procedures
-the fueling process begins with delivery of the fuel to
airport by tank truck.
-checking the bill of loading ,proper amount and
grades
-Fuel testing begin with truck, best grades of fuel
,sample taken and checking for visible
contamination.
-turbine fuel should be settle minimum two hour
before pumped to aircraft ,avgas don’t need time to
settle
A-FROM A FUEL TRUCK
-Aircraft can have fuel pumped directly into their tanks from
over (under) the wing tank openings
1-be sure the sump have been drained
2-fire extinguish must available and fully charged.
3-approch the aircraft with truck parallel to wing
4-set the parking break on the truck
5-static bounding wire between truck and aircraft
6-verify the proper grade of fuel
B-UNDER STORAGE SYSTEM :
-most air port have underground storage tank and buried fuel
line
aircraft can have fuel pumped directly into their tanks from
under storage tanks
12-DEFUELING
* Purpose: is a process of emptying the a/c from
fuel for certain reasons, following all of the safety
procedures required.

* Reasons:
-For maintenance.
-Change in A/C flight plans after refueling.
-Same precautions as refueling.
13-REVIEW OF SAFETY PROCEDURES for refueling & defueling
The safety procedures that must be observed when fueling
or defueling an aircraft:
1-Be sure that only the correct grade of fuel is put into an
aircraft.

2-Be sure that the fuel truck, or servicer, is properly

bonded to the aircraft and the fuel nozzle is bonded to
the structure before the cover is taken from the fu~)
tank.

3-Wipe up spilled fuel or flood it with water. Do not sweep

spilled fuel with a dry broom.

4-Be sure that there are no open fires in the vicinity of the
fueling or defueling operations.

5-Be sure that fire extinguishers suitable for a Class B fire

are available. Either CO2 or dry powder units are
generally used.
6-Protect the aircraft structure from damage from
the fuel hose and from the nozzle.

7-Be sure that the radio or radar are not used dur­
ing fueling or defueling, and that no electrical
equipment is turned on or off, except for the
equipment needed for the fueling operation.

8-When defueling, be sure that the fuel is not con­

taminated if it is to be used again.
9-Be sure that the filters in the tank truck or ser­vicer
remove all traces of water and contamina­tion and that the
fuel pumped into an aircraft is bright and clear.

10-If a biocidal additive is required, be sure that it is

mixed with the fuel in the proper concentra­tion.
11-If the aircraft is being fueled in the rain, be sure that
the tank opening is covered to exclude water from the
tank.

12-Be sure that dust covers and caps are placed over the
end of the fuel nozzles and any open fuel lines when they
are not in use.

13-Drive the tank truck parallel to the wing of the aircraft

and be sure that the parking brake is set so the truck
cannot roll into an aircraft.

14-When conducting under wing pressure fueling, be sure

that the pressure used and the delivery rate are those
specified by the manufacturer of the aircraft.

15-If any fuel is spilled onto your body, wash it off with
soap and water as soon as possible. Do not wear any
clothing on which fuel has been spilled.
16-Connect a grounding cable (static wire) from
the fuel truck or hydrant cart to ground.
Furthermore, when loading a fuel truck connect
the static wire from the loading rack to the fuel
truck before operating the dome cover.
17-Connect a static wire from the fuel truck,
hydrant cart, pit or cabinet to the aircraft.
18-When conducting over wing fueling, connect
the fuel nozzle static wire to the aircraft before
the tank cover is opened. Underwing nozzles
need not be bonded to the aircraft.
19-In general, the dispensing unit should be
grounded first, and should ultimately be bonded
to the receiving unit. Dome or tank cov­ers
should never be opened during a fuel trans­fer
unless all grounds and bonds are in place