Dams

Forces acting on Dams (Gravity)

 Dead load
◦ It comprises the major resisting force

◦ It includes the weight of the concrete or masonry or

both plus that of the appurtenances such weight of
gates and bridge.

◦ Usually a unit length of the dam is considered for

design.
◦ Cross section of the dam is divided into several
triangles and rectangles.

◦ Weight of each of these is the computed at their

respective centre of gravity.

◦ The resultant of all these forces is then calculated.

◦ Unit weight of concrete is normally taken as 2400

kg/m3.
 Reservoir and tail water loads

◦ Water pressure corresponding to full reservoir level

constitutes the major external force acting on the
dam.
◦ The water pressure acts horizontally and its with
zero at the water surface and equal to WH 2/2 at the
base.
◦ W is the unit weight of water and H is the depth of
water upstream.
 The resultant force WH2/2 acts at H/3 from the
base of the dam.

 When the upstream face is partly vertical and partly

inclined, the resultant water pressures comprise of

◦ Horizontal component P = WH2/2 acting at H/3 from the

base of the dam

◦ Vertical component P1 which is the weight of the column

of water ABCDA acting at CG of the area.
 Tail water pressure

◦ It is the pressure of the water exerted on the d/s face

of the dam
◦ Full value is taken for non overflow sections and a
reduced value is taken for overflow sections.
◦ If h is considered to be the height of the tail water,
then it exerts both horizontal and vertical pressures
on the d/s face of the dam.
◦ Horizontal pressure P2=wh2/2 acting at h/3 and
vertical pressure P3 = weight of column of water
A’B’C’.
 Uplift pressure
◦ Considered to be the second major external force

◦ The seepage of water normally takes place through

the pores, cracks and fissures of the foundation
materials, through the body of the dam and
through the joints between the dam body and the
foundation base.

◦ This seepage exerts pressure

 The uplift forces act as normal pressures in
pores, cracks and seems within the body of
the dam, between the dam and its foundation
and within in the foundation.

 At the heel and toe of the dam, these uplift

forces are considered to be equal to the
hydrostatic pressures joined by a straight line
in between.
 Drainage galleries are sometimes provided
within the body of the dam to relieve some
amount of this uplift pressure.

 So the uplift pressure at the drainage gallery

is equal to the tail water pressure plus one
third of the difference between the full
reservoir level and tail water head.
 Silt pressure
◦ The weight and the pressure of the submerged silt
are to be considered in addition to weight and
pressure of water.
◦ The weight of the silt acts vertically on the slope and
pressure horizontally, in a similar fashion to the
corresponding forces due to water.
◦ It is recommended that the submerged density of
silt for calculating horizontal pressure may be taken
as 1360 kg/m³.
◦ Equivalently, for calculating vertical force, the same
may be taken as 1925 kg/m³.
 Earthquake forces

◦ Earthquake or seismic activity is associated with

complex oscillating patterns of acceleration and
ground motions, which generate transient dynamic
loads due to inertia of the dam and the retained
body of water.

◦ Horizontal and vertical accelerations are not equal,

the former being of greater intensity.
 The effect of an earthquake is equal to
imparting acceleration to the foundation of
the dam.

 The acceleration induced is of two types

◦ Horizontal acceleration
◦ Vertical acceleration
 Horizontal acceleration
◦ Normally expressed in terms of acceleration due to
gravity

◦ Values of 0.1g to 0.15g are normally considered to

be sufficient for high dams in earth quake zones

◦ Causes inertia force and hydrodynamic pressure.

 Inertia force
◦ It is given by principle of mass times the
acceleration acting through the centre of gravity of
the section,
◦ Irrespective of the shape of the cross section.
◦ Acts in an opposite direction to the ground
acceleration
◦ Causes an overturning moment about the
horizontal section in addition to that of the
hydrodynamic force
 ◦ Inertia force is given by
W/g(αg)=Wα

W = weight of dam
g = acceleration due to gravity
α = acceleration co efficient, earth quake
acceleration due to gravity
 Hydrodynamic pressure
◦ An instantaneous horizontal pressure is exerted
against the dam in addition to hydrostatic forces
due to the horizontal acceleration of dam and its
foundation

◦ This is known as hydrodynamic pressure

◦ The direction of hydrodynamic pressure is opposite

to the direction of earthquake acceleration.
 The hydrodynamic force is given by

◦ Pe = Cαhw h
◦ C = coefficient that varies with the shape and
depth. Value can be approximated from:

Cm y y y y 
C  2    2  
2  h  h h h  
Pe = pressure intensity acting normal to the
face of the dam at a point depth y from the
reservoir water surface i.e. hydrodynamic
pressure at depth y. (kg/m2)

αh = horizontal earthquake intensity assumed

for the purpose of design. Varies from 0.03
to 0.24 at the top of the dam reduced linearly
to zero.
 w = unit weight of water (1000 kg/m3)
h = reservoir water depth (m) i.e. reservoir
level minus base level of dam at u/s face.
y = vertical distance from the reservoir
surface to the elevation under consideration
Cm = maximum value of pressure coefficient.

The force Pe acts at 4H/3π from the base.

 Vertical acceleration
◦ A vertical acceleration may either act downward or
upward.
◦ When it is acting in the upward direction, then the
foundations of the dam will be lifted upward and
become closer to the body of the dam and thus the
effective wt. of dam will be increased and hence the
stress developed will increase.

◦ Increased weight of the dam material = W c(1+ α)

◦ Increased weight of water = W(1+ α)
 When the vertical acceleration is acting downward,
the foundation shall try to move downward away
from the body of the dam and thus reducing the
effective wt. and stability of the dam and hence the
worst case for designs.

◦ Reduced weight of the dam material = W c(1- α)

◦ Reduced weight of water = W(1- α)
 Wave pressure
◦ Waves are generated on the surface of the reservoir
by blowing winds, which exert a pressure towards
the d/s side.

◦ Wave’s pressure depends upon the wave height.

◦ Wave height is given by the equation (for F<32km)

1
hw  0.032 v.F  0.763  0.271( F ) 4
 For F>32 km

hw  0.032 v.F

hw = wave height (m)

F = fetch or straight length of reservoir (km)
v = wind velocity.
◦ Maximum unit pressure = Pw = 2400 hw acting at
0.125hw above still water

◦ Total wave force = Fw = 2000 hw2 kg/m acting at

0.375hw above still water level.
Ice pressure
 Considered for dams constructed in cold
countries or at higher elevations

 It is exerted due to the formation of ice on the

reservoir water surface

 Ice expands and contracts due to change in

temperature.

 Ice pressure is caused due to expansion of ice.

 The face of the dam is subjected to force due
to expansion of ice which is taken as 25 to
150 T/m2.

 It is applied to the face of the dam over its

anticipated area of contact with ice.
Wind pressure
 Wind pressure is normally ignored in the
design of dams.

 But if considered, it is taken as 100 to 150

kg/m2 for the dam portion exposed to wind.
Design Parameters
 The elementary profile of a gravity dam subjected
only to water pressure on the upstream face is a right
angled triangle having zero width at the top and a
maximum base width B, where the water pressure is
maximum.

 So it can be said that the elementary profile

resembles the hydrostatic pressure distribution.

 When the reservoir is empty, the only force the only

force acting is the self weight of the dam W at a
distance B/3 from the heel.
Vertical stress distribution
 Forces acting on the dam are

 Weight of the dam

1
W  BHw
2


is the unit weight of the dam material (2400 kg/m3)

is the unit weight of water (1000kg/m3)

w
 Water pressure
1
P  wH 2
acting2at H/3 from the base.

 Uplift pressure
1
U  cwBH
2
c is the coefficient of uplift pressure intensity
and is taken as 1.
 Normal stress

W 6e 
Pmax  1  
Bwithout
B considering uplift pressure
W  6e 
Pmin  1  
B B
 Normal stress distribution with uplift
pressure considered

e  B/6
W  u  6e 
Pmax  1  
B  B
W  u  6e 
Pmin  1  
B  B
For empty reservoir
 Under general conditions, the maximum
compressive stress occurs at the toe and can
be calculated using e=B/6 and will be equal
to 2W/B. and the corresponding normal
stress at heel will be zero.

 The resultant will act at inner third (B/3 from

toe).
For full reservoir
 For no tension to develop, the resultant
should act at inner third point i.e. B/3 from
the toe (L2).

 Taking moments about L2 and equating to

zero.
H B B
P  u W  R  0
3 3 3
or
wH 2 H 1 B 1 B
 cwBH  BHw  0
2 3 2 3 2 3
 Multiply both sides by 6/wH
H 2  cB 2  B 2   0
B 2 (   c)  H 2
H
B
 c
When uplift pressure intensity is not
considered,
H
B

 For stability against sliding, the horizontal
forces causing sliding (ΣH=P) are balanced by
the frictional forces opposing it (μΣV or
μΣ(W-u). Hence

P= μ(W-u)
 1 1 1 
wH    BHw  cBwH 
2

2 2 2 
or
H
B
    c
or
H
B
    c
and
when Huplift is not considered.
B

Base width B is the maximum of the two given
by above equations.

Normal stress (at toe) is given by

W  u  6e 
Pn  1  
B  B
Under limiting condition e=B/6 then
W u
Pn  2
B
or
2 1 1 
Pn   BHw  cBwH 
B2 2 
or
Pn  wH    c 
Pn  wH 1At )  0
 1heel
Principal stress near the toe is the maximum
normal stress in the dam and is given by
 1  Pn sec 2   P  tan 2 
P  0
then
 1  Pn sec 2 
 B  2 
 1  wH    c     1
 H  
but
H
B
 c
2
H
B2 
 c
B2 1

H 2
 c
  1 
 1  wH    c    1
    c 
 1  wH    c  1

Shear stress at a horizontal plane near the toe

  Pn tan   wH    c) tan  
 B
  wH    c   
H
but
H B 1
B ; 
 c H  c
1
  wH    c 
 c
  wH   c

The principal and shear stress at the heel is

zero since normal stress at the heel is zero.
Low and high gravity dams
 A low dam is of limiting height such that the
resultant of all forces passes through the
middle third and the maximum compressive
stress at the toe does not exceed the
permissible limit i.e.
 1  wH    c  1  f
 Limiting height H is (ignoring uplift on safe
side)
f f
H 
w   c  1 w   1
 The limiting height for the usual stresses of
dam material

w = 1000 kg/m3
ρ = 2400 kg/m3
f = 30kg/cm2 or 300 ton/m2 gives

H=300/(1(2.4+1))=88m.
 A dam that exceeds the limiting height of a
low dam is termed as a high dam.

 In this case the resultant of water pressure

and self weight of the dam passes through
the middle third at certain sections of the
dam body indicating the development of
tension.
 The dam profile has to be adjusted by adding
extra slope or batter on the upstream and
downstream sides to limit the compressive
stresses within the allowable limits.
Stability analysis
 Gravity method
◦ The preliminary analysis of all gravity dams can be
made easily by isolating a typical x-section of the
dam of a unit width.

◦ This section is assumed to behave independently of

the adjoining section. In other words, the dam is
considered to be made of a number of cantilevers
of unit width each, which act independently of each
other.
 The dam transfers the load to the foundation
through cantilever action.

 The loads are resisted entirely by the weight

of individual cantilevers of unit length.

 Other assumptions made are

◦ The dam is considered to be composed of a
number of cantilevers each of 1m thick and each of
which are independent of the other.
 Hence for wide- U shaped valleys where
transverse joints are not generally grouted
this assumption is nearly satisfied.

 No loads are transferred to the abutments by

beam action

 The foundation and the beam behave as a

single unit, the joint being perfect.
 No movements of the foundations are
coursed due to transference of loads.

 The material in the foundation and body of

dam are homogeneous.

 Small opening made in the body of dam do

not affect the general distribution of stresses
and they only produce local affects
 Analytical method of analysis
 Consider unit length of the dam
 Find out ΣV and ΣH
 Calculate the lever arm of all the forces from

the toe.
 Calculate the sum of overturning moments

ΣMo and righting moments (ΣMr) at toe.

 Calculate the algebric sum of all those

moments (ΣMr-ΣMo)
 Calculate the location of the resultant from
toe
x
 M
V
 Calculate the eccentricity e of the resultant R
from the centre of the base width B (<B/6 for
no tension.
B
x
2
 Calculate the normal stress at the toe and
heel
V 1  6e 
B  B 
 Calculate the maximum normal stress and
shear stress at the toe and heel.
 toe  Pn sec    P  Pe  tan 
2 2

 heel  Pn sec2    P  Pe  tan 2 

 toe   Pn  P  tan 
 heel   Pn  P  tan 
 toe  Pn tanneglect
 tail water

 toe   Pn  ( P  Pe  tan 
 heel   Pn  ( P  Pe  tan 
 Pe is used while considering hydrodynamic
pressure exerted by tail water during
earthquake.

 Calculate the factor of safety against sliding

(should be greater than unity)

 V
H
 Calculate the shear friction factor (ranges
from 3-5)
  V  bq
H
Safety criteria for gravity dams
 Safety factor against Overturning
◦ The dam has to be safe against overturning at any
plane within the dam at the base or at any plane
below the dam
◦ The overturning of the dam may take place if the
resultant of all the forces acting on the dam passes
outside the base.
◦ But practically speaking, before overturning takes
place, other failures such as crushing of toe
material, cracking of upstream material and
increase in uplift and sliding may occur.
 The ratio of righting (stabilizing) moments
about toe (anti-clockwise) to the over turning
moments about toe (clock-wise) is called
factor of safety against over turning.

 Its value generally varies between 1.5 to 2.5.

 Safety factor against sliding
◦ The horizontal loads including horizontal
components of the loads acting on a dam are
resisted by frictional or shearing forces along
horizontal or nearly horizontal planes
◦ The total magnitude of the forces tending to induce
sliding shall be less than the total available
resistance along the sliding path.
◦ The resistance depends upon the cohesion and the
angle of internal friction of the soil material.
 For cases where cohesion is insignificant,
friction is the only force that resists sliding.
 The factor of safety should not be less than 2

and is given by
(W  u ) tan 
P
W is the total weight of the dam, u is the uplift
force P is the horizontal force. tanɸ is the
coefficient of internal friction (0.7 to 0.8)
 If we consider cohesion too then
(W  u ) tan   CA
P
Where C is the cohesion of the material and A is
the area in sq. meters.
For full reservoir conditions and maximum flood
discharge, it should not be less than 3 and
should not be less than 1.5 under maximum
flood discharge with extreme uplift condition
 Safety against crushing
◦ It is ensured if the compressive stresses produced
are within the allowable limits
◦ Equations for normal stresses for toe and heel have
been already described.
◦ When pressures at both toe and heel are
compressive, the max. compressive stress occurs at
the toe when e = B/6.
◦ Excessive stresses at toe and heel can be brought
into limits by providing fillets at slopes 1:1 on u/s
and 2:1 on d/s at heights
hheel  6 H  0.658H  1.07
2

htoe  6.5H  1.1H 2  0.9

h = fillet height (m)

H = dam height (m)
The maximum allowable compressive stress is
taken as 30kg/cm2.
 Safety against tension

◦ A gravity dam is usually designed such that no

tension is developed in the dam body and for that
the resultant must lie within the middle third.
◦ If the eccentricity e is greater than B/6, tension is
developed at the heel.