Privileges in SQL

• select: allows read access to relation,or the ability to query

using the view
Example: grant users U1, U2, and U3 select authorization on the branch
relation:
grant select on branch to U1, U2, U3
• insert: the ability to insert tuples
• update: the ability to update using the SQL update statement
• delete: the ability to delete tuples.
• all privileges: used as a short form for all the allowable
privileges
 UPDATE

• To change the data values in a pre existing table, the

UPDATE command can be used. 
UPDATE tablename 
SET colX = valX [, colY = valY, ...] 
WHERE condition 
• How can you change “abebe" into "CHala" in the
"LastName" column in the Persons table?
• UPDATE Persons SET LastName=' abebe ' INTO LastName='
CHala' ;
• MODIFY Persons SET LastName=' CHala' WHERE
LastName=' abebe‘;
 BETWEEN / AND

• The BETWEEN ... AND operator selects a range

of data between two values. These values can
be numbers, text, or dates. 

SELECT*FROM table_name WHERE col_name 
BETWEEN val1 AND val2;
 chapter 2 Basics of Functional Dependencies and
Normalization for Relational Databases

• There are two levels at which we can discuss the

goodness of relation schemas.
• The first is the logical (or conceptual) level—how
users interpret the relation schemas and the meaning
of their attributes.
• The second is the implementation (or physical
storage) level—how the tuples in a base relation are
stored and updated.
• database design may be performed using two
approaches: bottom-up or top-down.
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• A bottom-up design methodology (also called
design by synthesis) considers the basic relationships
among individual attributes as the starting point and
uses those to construct relation schemas.
• top-down design methodology (also called design
by analysis) starts with a number of groupings of
attributes into relations that exist together naturally,
for example, on an invoice, a form, or a report.
 Informal Design Guidelines
for Relation Schemas
• Four informal guidelines that may be used as measures
to determine the quality of relation schema design:
■ Making sure that the semantics of the attributes is clear
in the schema.
■ Reducing the redundant information in tuples.
■ Reducing the NULL values in tuples.
■ Disallowing the possibility of generating spurious
tuples. referance(Fundamentals of Database Systems -
6th Edition - by Ramez Elmasri & Shamkant Navathe
around page 505 )
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• The problems we pointed out, which can be detected without
additional tools of analysis, are as follows:
■ Anomalies that cause redundant work to be done during
insertion into and modification of a relation, and that may cause
accidental loss of information during a deletion from a relation.
■ Waste of storage space due to NULLs and the difficulty of
performing selections, aggregation operations, and joins due to
NULL values.
■ Generation of invalid and spurious data during joins on base
relations with matched attributes that may not represent a
proper (foreign key, primary key) relationship.
 Functional Dependencies
• A functional dependency is a constraint between two
sets of attributes from the database. Suppose that our
relational database schema has n attributes A1, A2, ...,
An; let us think of the whole database as being
described by a single universal relation schema.
• R = {A1, A2, ... , An}.
• We do not imply that we will actually store the
database as a single universal table; we use this
concept only in developing the formal theory of data
dependencies.
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• Definition. A functional dependency, denoted by X → Y,

between two sets of attributes X and Y that are subsets of
R specifies a constraint on the possible tuples that can form
a relation state r of R.
• The constraint is that, for any two tuples t1 and t2 in r that
have t1[X] = t2[X], they must also have t1[Y] = t2[Y].
• This means that the values of the Y component of a tuple in
r depend on, or are determined by, the values of the X
component; alternatively, the values of the X component of
a tuple uniquely (or functionally) determine the values of
the Y component.
 Normal Forms Based on Primary Keys
Normalization of Relations
• The process, which proceeds in a top-down fashion by evaluating each
relation against the criteria for normal forms and decomposing relations
as necessary, can thus be considered as relational design by analysis.
• Codd proposed three normal forms, which he called first, second, and
third normal form.
• A stronger definition of 3NF—called Boyce-Codd normal form (BCNF)—
was proposed later by Boyce and Codd.
• All these normal forms are based on a single analytical tool the
functional dependencies among the attributes of a relation.
• Later, a fourth normal form (4NF) and a fifth normal form (5NF) were
proposed, based on the concepts of multivalued dependencies and join
dependencies, respectively.
 Normalization of data
• can be considered a process of analyzing the given
relation schemas based on their FDs and primary
keys to achieve the desirable properties of:
• 1)minimizing redundancy
• 2) minimizing the insertion, deletion, and update
anomalies.
• considered as a “filtering” or “purification”
process to make the design have successively
better quality.
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normalization procedure provides database
designers with the following:
■ A formal framework for analyzing relation
schemas based on their keys and on the
functional dependencies among their attributes
■ A series of normal form tests that can be carried
out on individual relation schemas so that the
relational database can be normalized to any
desired degree
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• Denormalization is the process of storing the join of
higher normal form relations as a base relation, which
is in a lower normal form.
1. First Normal Form
• Disallow multivalued attributes, composite attributes,
and their combinations.
• It states that the domain of an attribute must include
only atomic (simple, indivisible) values and that the
value of any attribute in a tuple must be a single value
from the domain of that attribute.
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• Normalization into 1NF. (a) A relation schema
that is not in 1NF. (b) Sample state of relation
DEPARTMENT. (c) 1NF version of the same
relation with redundancy.
• The domain of Dlocations contains sets of
values and hence is nonatomic.
• Inthis case, Dnumber→Dlocations because
each set is considered a single member of the
attribute domain
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• There are three main techniques to achieve first normal form for such
a relation:
• Remove the attribute Dlocations that violates 1NF and place it in a
separaterelation DEPT_LOCATIONS along with the primary key
Dnumber of DEPARTMENT.
• Expand the key so that there will be a separate tuple in the original
DEPARTMENT relation for each location of a DEPARTMENT.
• If a maximum number of values is known for the attribute—for
example, if it is known that at most three locations can exist for a
department—replace the Dlocations attribute by three atomic
attributes: Dlocation1, Dlocation2, and Dlocation3. This solution has
the disadvantage of introducing NULL values if most departments have
fewer than three locations.
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• First normal form also disallows multivalued attributes that
are themselves composite.
• These are called nested relations because each tuple can
have a relation within it. the EMP_PROJ relation could
appear if nesting is allowed. Each tuple represents an
employee entity, and a relation PROJS(Pnumber, Hours)
within each tuple represents the employee’s projects and
the hours per week that employee works on each project.
The schema of this EMP_PROJ relation can be represented
as follows:
• EMP_PROJ(Ssn, Ename, {PROJS(Pnumber, Hours)})
 Second Normal Form

• Second normal form (2NF) is based on the concept

of full functional dependency.
• Afunctional dependency X → Y is a full functional
dependency if removal of any attribute A from X
means that the dependency does not hold any more.
• A functionaldependency X→Y is a partial
dependency if some attribute A ε X can be removed
from X and the dependency still holds; that is, for
some A ε X, (X – {A}) → Y.
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• Definition. A relation schema R is in 2NF if
every nonprime attribute A in R is fully
functionally dependent on the primary key of
R.
 Third Normal Form
• Third normal form (3NF) is based on the
concept of transitive dependency.
• A functional dependency X→Y in a relation
schema R is a transitive dependency if there
exists a set of attributes Z in R that is neither a
candidate key nor a subset of any key of R,and
both X→Z and Z→Y hold.
• The dependency Ssn→Dmgr_ssn is transitive
through Dnumber in EMP_DEPT
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• dependencies Ssn → Dnumber and Dnumber →
Dmgr_ssn hold and Dnumber is neither a key itself
nor a subset of the key of EMP_DEPT. Intuitively, we
can see that the dependency of Dmgr_ssn on
Dnumber is undesirable in EMP_DEPT since
Dnumber is not a key of EMP_DEPT.
• N.b: According to Codd’s original definition, a
relation schema R is in 3NF if it satisfies 2NF and no
nonprime attribute of R is transitively dependent on
the primary key.
 General Definitions of Second
and Third Normal Forms
• we want to design our relation schemas so
that they have neither partial nor transitive
dependencies because these types of
dependencies cause the update anomalies.
• The steps for normalization into 3NF relations
that we have discussed so far disallow partial
and transitive dependencies on the primary
key.
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• prime attribute, an attribute that is part of any
candidate key will be considered as prime.
• Partial and full functional dependencies and
transitive dependencies will now b considered
with respect to all candidate keys of a relation.
• General Definition of Second Normal Form
• Definition. A relation schema R is in second
normal form (2NF) if every nonprime attribute A
in R is not partially dependent on any key of R
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