Vehicle Tribology

1 Lubricants, Their Properties & Testing

Col (Prof)James K Varkey

20 Nov 2017
 Vehicle Tribology
2 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
1. Functions of Lubricants
2. Types of Lubricants
 Solid Lubricants
 Lubricating Oil
 Greases
 Gas as Lubricants
3. Classification of Lubricating Oil and Service Rating
 API Rating
 SAE Classification
4. Properties of Lubricating Oil
 Viscosity and Viscosity Index
 Cloud Point and Pour Point
 Flash Point
 Specific Gravity
 Carbon Residue
 Oiliness
 Oxidation Stability
 Cleanliness and Colour
 Acidity and Neutralization Number
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
3 Functions of Lubricants
Sliding between clean solid surfaces is generally characterized by
a high coefficient of friction and severe wear due to the specific
properties of the surfaces, such as hardness, high surface energy,
reactivity, and mutual solubility.
Clean surfaces readily adsorb traces of foreign substances, such
as organic compounds, from the environment.
The presence of a layer of foreign material at an interface cannot
be guaranteed during a sliding process.
That is why lubricants are deliberately applied to produce low
friction and wear.
Any substance introduced between two moving sliding
surfaces with a view to reduce the friction (or frictional
resistance) between them, thereby reduce wear is
known as a lubricants.
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
4 Functions of Lubricants
The term “lubrication” is applied to two different situations: solid lubrication
and fluid (liquid or gaseous) film lubrication.

A solid lubricant is any material used as a powder or a thin, solid film on

a surface to provide protection from damage during a relative movement by
reducing friction and wear.
Solid lubricants are used for applications in which any sliding contact
occurs
In some cases a thin film on the order of surface roughness of moving
surfaces, results in relatively low friction and wear, as compared to solid–
solid contact.
A thick fluid film between two surfaces in relative motion prevents solid–
solid contact and can provide very low friction and negligible wear.
Fluid can be liquid or gaseous; even a thick film of air transposed between
two moving surfaces is a method of good lubrication.
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
5 Functions of Lubricants

Primary Function of a Lubricating oil

 To provide a continuous fluid film between surfaces in

relative motion so as to reduce friction and prevent wear.
Secondary functions is to
 Cool the working parts,
 Protect metal surfaces against corrosion,
 Flush away or prevent ingress of contaminants and
 Keep the engine reasonably free from deposits
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
6 Types of Lubricants

1. Solid lubricants
2. Lubricating oil (Liquid Lubricants)
3. Greases
4. Gas as lubricants
Solid Lubricants
Solid lubricants are solid materials that exhibit very low friction
and moderately low wear in sliding in the absence of an external
supply of lubricant.
The most commonly used solid lubricants are graphite and
Molybdenum disulfide as well as PTFE. (Polytetra-
fluoroethylene (Teflon Trade mark of DuPont)
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
7 Types of Lubricants
The fundamental reasons for the low coefficient of friction of PTFE are:
 The low adhesion of the PTFE surface (it has a slippery feel);
 The strong adhesions that are formed to the interface;
 The easy transfer of PTFE onto the bare surface.

The formation of a thin, coherent transfer film of PTFE on the mating

surface seems indeed to be one of the essential prerequisites for easy
sliding and low friction.
Graphite
A metal mating surface that has slid against graphite in an ambient
environment reveals a stained wear track. The buildup of solids in the wear
track is generally 200–1000 nm thick. The wear track is coated with
graphite platelets bonded to the metal surface through oxidation process.
This transfer film is responsible in controlling friction and wear rates.
Coefficients of friction in the range of 0.05–0.15 can be achieved with
graphite in an ambient environment.
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
8 Types of Lubricants
Molybdenum disulphide (MoS2)
The coefficient of friction of MoS2 is lower in a vacuum than in air.
The coefficient of friction increased with increasing relative
humidity up to a relative humidity of approximately 60% and then
dropped off again.
The reason for this decrease at high humidity is not fully known,
but it is believed that the MoS2 coating was disrupted by moisture
during the 30–60% humidity period responsible for the high
friction.
When used in air, MoS2 not only is a poorer lubricant, but also is
corrosive to the mating metallic surface in the presence of
adsorbed water vapor.
The MoS2 can be used as a lubricant from cryogenic
temperatures up to a maximum temperature of about 315oC in air
(or about 500oC in an inert environment, e.g., N or vacuum).
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
9 Types of Lubricants

Molybdenum disulphide (MoS2)

The lubricating ability from cryogenic temperatures up to 300–
400oC in air and even higher temperatures in nonoxidizing
atmospheres makes it attractive for aerospace applications.
MoS2, like graphite, is used in powder form, as resin-bonded
coatings, vacuum deposited coatings, or as an additive to
lubricants, greases and solids.
MoS2 is widely used in industry and its sputtered coatings are
used in bearings and other sliding applications, especially in
nonoxidizing environments, for example, satellites, space
shuttle, and other aerospace applications.
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
10 Type of Lubricants
Liquid Lubricants: These exist in liquid form and are used to
reduce friction by providing a uniform film between them. These
are also very important and are widely used in several machines
and tools because they act as:-
a) Sealing agent
b) Corrosion inhibitors and
c) Cooling medium.
Example of liquid lubricants: custard oil, synthetic oil, mineral
oil, etc…
Condition for using liquid lubricants:-
1. Where solid and semisolid lubricants are not suitable.
2. In light machines like watches, clocks, sewing Machines etc..
3. In such type machines where less amount of Heat is produced
during motion so that the produced heat is insufficient to ignite or
burn the lubricants.
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
11 Types of Lubricants
Mineral oil
They are obtained from petroleum—crude oil which consists of
a mixture of hydrocarbons (compounds of carbon and
hydrogen) together with small amounts of compounds of
sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen and metals such as vanadium,
nickel and iron.
Examples are:
 Paraffins
 Naphthene (Cyclic Hydrocarbons)
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
12 Types of Lubricants
Synthetic oil
They are derived from chemicals and are not widely used
except for some special industrial applications.
The main types used in diesel lubricants are synthetic
hydrocarbons (polybutenes and alkylated aromatics) and
organic esters (di-esters and polyol esters
Some synthetic lubricants are compatible with mineral oils and
may be blended with them to obtain desired properties.
They have the advantage of high viscosity index, in excess of
120, without degradation by mechanical shearing.
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
13 Types of Lubricants
Greases.
These come under Semi-Solid Lubricants, and are neither solid
nor liquid. A Semisolid lubricant is obtained by combining
lubricating oil with thickening agent. They are made generally by
saponifying a metal base with a fatty substance. (The term
saponification is the name given to the chemical reaction that occurs
when a vegetable oil or animal fat is mixed with a strong alkali. The
products of the reaction are two: soap and glycerine).
The processes are carried out in controlled temperatures
Examples are Silica gel, Grease, Vaseline, etc
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
14 Types of Lubricants
Gas as Lubricants
Gas lubricated bearings have numerous advantages over
liquid and solid lubricated bearings for a wide range of
applications. A gas bearing is virtually frictionless, silent, and
vibration free. Air bearings are also widely used to allow
frictionless movement of large heavy items over flat surfaces
using air pads.
Example: Air, Helium and Carbondioxide
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
15 Classification of Lubricating Oils and Service Rating

API Classification
 American Petroleum Institute (API) system for rating oil
classifies oil according to its performance characteristics.
The higher rated oils contain additives that provide maximum
protection against rust, corrosion, wear, oil oxidation, and
thickening at high temperatures.
There are currently six oil classifications for gasoline engines
(SA, SB, SC, SD, SE, and SF)
 Four classifications for diesel engines (CA, CB, CC, and CD).
 The higher the alpha designation, the higher quality the oil is.
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
16 Classification of Lubricating Oils and Service Rating

1) SA (Utility Gasoline Engines).

 Adequate for utility engines subjected to light loads,
moderate speeds, and clean conditions.
 SA-rated oils generally contain no additives.
2) SB (Minimum Duty Gas - Automotive).
 Adequate for automotive use under favorable conditions
(light loads, low speeds, and moderate temperatures) with
relatively short oil change intervals.
SB-rated oils generally offer minimal protection to the engine
against bearing scuffing, corrosion, and oil oxidation.
3) SC Meets all automotive manufacturers’ requirements for
vehicles manufactured from 1964 to 1967
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
17 Classification of Lubricating Oils and Service Rating
4) SD.
 Meets all automotive manufacturers’ requirements for
vehicles manufactured from 1968 to 1970.
 SD oil offers additional protection over SC oils that is
necessary with the introduction of emission controls.
5) SE.
 Meets all automotive manufacturers’ requirements for
vehicles manufactured from 1971 to 1979.
 Stricter emission requirements create the need for this oil
to provide protection during these years.
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
18 Classification of Lubricating Oils and Service Rating
6) SF.
 Meets all automotive manufacturers’ requirements for
vehicles manufactured after 1980.
 The SF oil is designed to meet the demands of the small,
high-revving engines that are popular due to the trend
toward downsizing of vehicles.
 An SF oil can be used in all automotive vehicles.
API service ratings have related military specifications
designations.
7) CA. Meets all automotive manufacture’s requirements for
gasoline and naturally aspirated diesel engines operated on
low sulfur fuel. Widely used during the 1940’s and 1950’s.
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
19 Classification of Lubricating Oils and Service Rating

8) CB. Meets all automotive manufacture’s requirements for

gasoline and naturally aspirated diesel engines operated on
high sulfur fuel, introduced in 1949.
9) CC. Meets all automotive manufacture’s requirements for
lightly supercharged diesel and heavy duty gasoline engines,
introduced in 1961.
10) CD. Meets all automotive manufacture’s requirements for
moderately supercharged diesel engines, introduced in 1955
onwards
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
20 Classification of Lubricating Oils and Service Rating

SAE Classification
 The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) in the USA has
classified engine lubricating oils into grades according to their
viscosity, thus simplifying manufacturers' recommendations
and the marketing of oils of the different viscosities required in
practice.
 This SAE system is now used almost universally for the
classification of engine oils.
 There are six W (for winter) grades (SAE OW, 5W, 1OW, 15W,
2OW and 25W) defined by their viscosities at low temperatures
particular to each grade.
 There are five grades (SAE 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60) classified in
accordance with their viscosities at 100 °C
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
21 Classification of Lubricating Oils and Service Rating
 It also shows that the added requirement of pumpability down to
a specified maximum sub-zero temperature is demanded of the
Winter grades to avoid a start without oil pressure
 By the use of viscosity index improvers engine oils can be
formulated to fall into more than one SAE grade, and such oils
are known as multi-grade oils.
 They are designated by the two extreme SAE numbers, e.g.
10W/30, meaning that they have a low-temperature viscosity
appropriate to the W grade and a high-temperature viscosity
appropriate to the non-W grade
 They have a Viscosity Index of the order of 130-140.
 SAE 10W/30, 20W/40 and 20W/50 grades have been those
mostly available, but now such combinations as 5W/20 and
15W/40 and others are also available.
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
22 Properties of Lubricating Oils
Viscosity and Viscosity Index
 Viscosity is the most important property of a lubricating oil.
 It is a measure of the resistance to flow, a thin oil, an oil of
high fluidity, has a low viscosity, a thick oil, a viscous oil, has a
high viscosity.
 The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to
gradual deformation by shear stress or tensile stress. For
liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of
"thickness"; for example, honey has a much higher
viscosity than water.
 The kinematic viscosity is determined by measuring the time
taken for a given volume of oil to flow through a standard
capillary tube under controlled conditions of temperature and
pressure, and multiplying this time by a factor determined by
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
23 Properties of Lubricating Oils
Viscosity and Viscosity Index

 The viscosity of lubricating oils decreases with rise in

temperature and vice versa.
 The rate of change with temperature depends on the
chemical nature of the oil;
 The viscosity of aromatic and naphthenic oils changes
more rapidly than that of paraffinic oils.
Viscosity Index, a standard measure of the rate change of
viscosity with temperature. The higher the VI, the lower is the
rate of change with changes in temperature.
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
24 Properties of Lubricating Oils
Cloud Point and Pour Point

 Petroleum oils solidify if cooled to a sufficiently low

temperature, either due to the partial separation of wax or to a
solidifying of the oil itself.
 The temperature at which wax first separates is known as
the cloud point.
 The temperature at which the oil will just flow under certain
standard test conditions is known as the pour point.
The pour point gives an indication as to what may be
expected under low temperature operation.
 It also represents the temperature below which it would be
dangerous to use the oil in gravity lubrication systems.
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
25 Properties of Lubricating Oils
Cloud Point and Pour Point
Cloud Point is defined as the temperature at which an oil
becomes cloudy or hazy in apparatus, while the
temperature at which the oil ceases to flow is called pour
Point.
• Cloud point and pour point indicates the suitability of
lubricants in cold condition.
• These are determined with the help of cloud and pour
point apparatus.
These are properties that hold great significance in cold
weathers.
Cloud point is also referred to as Wax Appearance
Temperature (WAT).
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
26 Properties of Lubricating Oils
Flash Point
Flash point is the minimum temperature at which a lubricant
gives sufficient vapor and burn for a moment, when an ignition
source is given.

Fire Point is the lowest temperature at which the lubricant gives

sufficient vapor and burn continuously for at least five seconds,
when a flame is brought near to it. At this temperature the vapor
continues to burn after being ignited.

The flash point of a volatile material is the lowest

temperature at which vapours of the material will ignite,
when given an ignition source.
At this temperature the vapor may cease to burn when the
source of ignition is removed
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
27 Properties of Lubricating Oils
Density/ Specific Gravity

 Density is a fundamental physical property that can be used

in conjunction with other properties to characterize the quality
of any liquid.
 Determination of the density or relative density of petroleum
and its products is necessary for the conversion of measured
volumes to volumes at the standard temperatures of 15°C,
 Specific Gravity is the ratio of density of the material to that of
water at 4oC.
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
28 Properties of Lubricating Oils
Carbon Residue
 The carbon residue test is designed to measure the tendency
of oil to deposit carbon in an engine.
 While other factors such as engine condition and adjustment
have a marked influence on the serviceability of an oil, the teat
does give a good measure of what may reasonable be
expected of oil in actual service.
 Accordingly determination of the carbon residue is probably
next in importance to a determinations of the viscosity and
viscosity index of the oil.
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
29 Properties of Lubricating Oils
Oiliness
 The term “oiliness” is defined as that property of lubricants
by virtue of which one fluid gives lower coefficients of
friction (generally at slow speeds or high loads) than
another fluid of the same viscosity.
 The term relates to a lubricant’s tendency to wet and adhere to
a surface.
 There is no formal test for the measurement of oiliness.
 Determination of this factor is chiefly through subjective
judgment and experience.
 The most desirable lubricant for a specific use need not
necessarily be the oiliest; e.g., long-fibre grease, which is low in
oiliness as compared with machine oils, is usually preferable for
packing rolling bearings.
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
30 Properties of Lubricating Oils
Oxidation Stability
 During use, oxidation products are formed in the lubricating oil in
a somewhat similar manner to the formation of gum in gasoline.
 As the oxidation products accumulate the viscosity of the oil
increases and there is a greater tendency for carbon deposition to
occur.
 The oxidation test is designed to measure the stability of any
particular lubricating oil to oxidation,
 In this test air is passed through the oil at a high temperature for
long periods of time, and the viscosity and carbon residue of the oil
then determined.
 The lower the increase in viscosity and carbon residue, the
greater the resistance of the oil to oxidation, and the longer will it
remain in good condition in service.
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
31 Properties of Lubricating Oils
Cleanliness and Colour

 Cleanliness is important property of oil that should be free

from any dust and wear particles
 The color of the oil is no indication of quality. It is controlled
by the refiner to maintain a stable color as a trademark for
each type of oil.
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
32 Properties of Lubricating Oils
Acidity and Neutralization Number

 The acid or neutralization number is a measure of the

amount of potassium hydroxide required to neutralize the acid
contained in a lubricant.
 Acids are formed as oils oxidize with age and service.
 The acid number for an oil sample is indicative of the age of
the oil and can be used to determine when the oil must be
changed.
 Lubricants, their Properties and Testing
33 Functions of Lubricants

Neutralization Number

 The neutralization number is an indication of acidic and

basic impurities in the lubricating oil.
 As we know Determination of acidity is more common and
is expressed in term of acid value or acid number.
 The acid number greater than 0.1 is usually taken as an
indication of oxidation of the oil.
 The source of acidity in oil may be:-
a) Products of oxidation of oil.
b) Contamination of oil by SO2 from combustion of the
fuel.