Triggers: The Problem -

Examples from COMPANY Database

EMPLOYEE(Name, SSN, Salary, DNO, SupervisorSSN, JobCode)
DEPARTMENT(DNO, TotalSalary, ManagerSSN)
STARTING_PAY(JobCode, StartPay)

1. Limit all salary increases to 50%.

2. Enforce policy that salaries may never decrease.
3. Maintain TotalSalary in DEPARTMENT relation as
employees and their salaries change.
4. Inform a supervisor whenever a supervisee’s salary
becomes larger than the supervisor’s.
5. All new hires for a given job code get the same starting
salary, which is available in the STARTING_PAY table.
Active Databases CIS 671 1
 The Problem:
Example from BANK Database
Branch(BranchID, BranchName, BranchCity, Assets)
Customer(CustID, CustName, CustStreet, CustCity)
Account(AccountNo, BranchID, Balance)
AccountCustomer(AccountNo, CustID)
Loan(LoanNo, BranchID, Balance)
LoanCustomer(LoanID, CustID)
6. Branch Assets are maintained as sum(Account.Balance)
for each branch.
7. Overdrafts do not produce a negative balance. Instead
they are treated as a loan. The account balance is set to 0
and a loan is created for the amount of the overdraft.

Active Databases CIS 671 2

 The Problem:
Example from TEMPERATURE Database
EXTREMES City High High Low Low
TEMPS City Temp Temp Date Temp Date
Denver 25 Denver 100 7/30 -10 1/20
Columbus 15 Columbus 95 7/5 2 2/14
Anchorag -15 Anchorag 87 8/3 -10 2/16
e e

8. Given table of temperatures TEMPS, that is periodically

updated, keep the table of extreme temperatures EXTREMES
up to date.
Create the EXTREMES table and populate with all the cities
in the TEMPS table, setting the other attributes to null.

Active Databases CIS 671 3

 What is Needed?
The Event-Condition-Action Model
(ECA Model)
• Rules (or triggers) with three components:
– Event triggering the rule. (insert, delete, update)
• E.g., an employee’s salary changes.
– Condition to determine if rule action should be
executed.
• E.g., is new Temp in City higher than HighTemp for that City?
– Action to be taken.
• E.g., update the Department’s Total Salary.

Active Databases CIS 671 4

 What is Needed?
The Event-Condition-Action Model
(ECA Model), continued
• Actions may apply before or after the
triggering event is executed.
• An SQL statement may change several rows.
– Apply action once per SQL statement.
– Apply action for each row changed by SQL
statement.

Active Databases CIS 671 5

 Availability

• Triggers included in SQL 1999 (SQL 3)

– Not in earlier standards.
• Included much earlier in most products:
– Oracle, Sybase, DB2
– As a consequence syntax may differ from the
standard.

Active Databases CIS 671 6

 The Problem:
Examples from COMPANY Database
EMPLOYEE(Name, SSN, Salary, DNO, SupervisorSSN, JobCode)
DEPARTMENT(DNO, TotalSalary, ManagerSSN)
STARTING_PAY(JobCode, StartPay)

1. Limit all salary increases to 50%.

2. Enforce policy that salaries may never decrease.
3. Maintain TotalSalary in DEPARTMENT relation as
employees and their salaries change. (EN, Fig. 23.2 (a))
4. Inform a supervisor whenever a supervisee’s salary
becomes larger than the supervisor’s. (EN, Fig. 23.2 (b))
5. All new hires for a given job code get the same starting
salary, which is available in the STARTING_PAY table.

Active Databases CIS 671 7

 1. COMPANY Database
Limit all salary increases to 50%
before trigger emp_salary_limit

EMPLOYEE(Name, SSN, Salary, DNO, SupervisorSSN, JobCode)

create trigger emp_salary_limit

before update of EMPLOYEE
for each row
when (new.Salary > 1.5 * old.Salary)
set new.Salary = 1.5 * old.Salary;

“new” refers to “old” refers to

the new tuple. the old tuple.
Active Databases CIS 671 8
 2. COMPANY Database
Enforce policy that salaries may never decrease
before trigger emp_salary_no_decrease
EMPLOYEE(Name, SSN, Salary, DNO, SupervisorSSN, JobCode)

create trigger emp_salary_no_decrease

before update of EMPLOYEE
for each row
when (new.Salary < old.Salary) Method depends on
begin DBMS.
log the event;
signal error condition;
end

Active Databases CIS 671 9

5. COMPANY Database: All new hires for a given
job code get the same starting salary, which is
available in the STARTING_PAY table.
before trigger emp_start_pay

EMPLOYEE(Name, SSN, Salary, DNO, SupervisorSSN, JobCode)

STARTING_PAY(JobCode, StartPay)

create trigger emp_start_pay

before insert on EMPLOYEE
for each row
set Salary =
(select StartPay
from STARTING_PAY
where JobCode = new.JobCode)

Active Databases CIS 671 10

7. BANK Database: Overdrafts do not produce a
negative balance. Instead they are treated as a loan.
The account balance is set to 0 and a loan is created
for the amount of the overdraft.
after trigger overdraft_trigger

Active Databases CIS 671 11

 7. BANK Database: Overdrafts, continued
after trigger overdraft_trigger
Branch(BranchID, BranchName, BranchCity, Assets)
Customer(CustID, CustName, CustStreet, CustCity)
Account(AccountNo, BranchID, Balance)
AccountCustomer(AccountNo, CustID)
Loan(LoanNo, BranchID, Balance)
LoanCustomer(LoanID, CustID)
• Insert a new tuple in the Loan relation, using same branch as
the account. Make LoanNo the same as the AccountNo and the
Balance the amount of the overdraft.

• Insert a new tuple in the LoanCustomer relation relating the

new loan to this customer.
• Set the Balance of the Account tuple to 0.
Active Databases CIS 671 12
 7. BANK Database: Overdrafts, continued
after trigger overdraft_trigger

create trigger overdraft_trigger after update on Account

for each row
when new.balance < 0
begin
insert into Loan values
(new.AccountID, new.BranchID, -new.Balance);
insert into LoanCustomer
(select CustID, AccountNo
from AccountCustomer AC
where new.AccountID = AC.AccountID);
update Account
set Balance = 0
where Account.AccountNo = new.AccountNo;
end;

Active Databases CIS 671 13

 8. TEMPS Database: Create the EXTREMES table and populate
with all the cities in the TEMPS table, setting the other attributes to null.

after triggers HighTempUpdate and LowTempUpdate

TEMPS(City, Temp)
EXTREMES(City, HighTemp, HighDate, LowTemp, LowDate)

• Need two after triggers

– one for updating the high temperature (HighTempUpdate),
– the other for updating the low temperature (LowTempUpdate).
• They will be very similar.

Active Databases CIS 671 14

8. TEMPS Database: continued. High Tempearture Update
TEMPS(City, Temp)
EXTREMES(City, HighTemp, HighDate, LowTemp, LowDate)

create trigger HighTempUpdate

after update of TEMPS Normal
for each row situation.
when (new.Temp >
( select HighTemp
from EXTREMES
Initially
where City= new.City) HighTemp
or (selectHighTemp is null.
from EXTREMES
where City = new.City) is null ))
update EXTREMES
set HighTemp = new.Temp, Low Temperature
HighDate = current date similar.
where City = new.City;
Active Databases CIS 671 15
 8. TEMPS Database: continued.
Other Problems

• Insert a new City into TEMPS.

– Must also insert into EXTREMES.
– Initial values of HighTemp, HighDate, LowTemp,
LowDate must be set.

• Delete a City from TEMPS.

– Leave City in EXTREMES.
– Delete City from EXTREMES.

Active Databases CIS 671 16

 8. TEMPS Database: continued.
Insert a new City into TEMPS:
Insert City tuple into EXTREMES.
Set initial values of HighTemp, HighDate,
LowTemp, LowDate.

TEMPS(City, Temp)
EXTREMES(City, HighTemp, HighDate, LowTemp, LowDate)

create trigger NewCity

after insert of TEMPS
for each row
insert into EXTREMES(City, HighTemp, HighDate,
LowTemp, LowDate)
values(new.City, new.Temp, Current Date,
new.Temp, Current Date);
Active Databases CIS 671 17
 8. TEMPS Database: continued.
Delete a City from TEMPS:
Delete City tuple from EXTREMES.
Add Foreign Key constraint for EXTREMES.

TEMPS(City, Temp)
EXTREMES(City, HighTemp, HighDate, LowTemp, LowDate)

Alter table EXTREMES

add constraint fk
foreign key(City) references TEMPS
on delete cascade;

Active Databases CIS 671 18

 Problems with Use of Triggers
• How to guarantee set of triggers is consistent?
• Recursion is allowed.
– How to guarantee termination?

• Tools are still needed to help address these problems.

Active Databases CIS 671 19

 Triggers: The Problem -
9. Another Example from
COMPANY Database
EMPLOYEE(Name, SSN, Salary, DNO, SupervisorSSN, JobCode)
DEPARTMENT(DNO, TotalSalary, ManagerSSN)
STARTING_PAY(JobCode, StartPay)
1. Add a new field, Span, to the EMPLOYEE relation.
• For each employee, Span is the number of employees supervised.

EMPLOYEE(Name, SSN, Salary, DNO, SupervisorSSN, JobCode,

Span)
2. Initialize Span appropriately.
3. Keep Span correct as the database changes.

Active Databases CIS 671 20

 9. COMPANY Database
For each employee, Span is the
number of employees supervised.
EMPLOYEE(Name, SSN, Salary, DNO, SupervisorSSN, JobCode,
Span)
Idea
• Add the Span attribute to EMPLOYEE.
• Initialize the values of Span based on the current database.
• Create insert, delete and update triggers to keep Span up to
date for an employee’s immediate supervisor.
• Create another update trigger to propagate the change in Span
up through the rest of the hierarchy.
Active Databases CIS 671 21
 9. COMPANY Database
Update Span for the immediate supervisor.
EMPLOYEE(Name, SSN, ..., SupervisorSSN,..., Span)

create trigger EmpHire

create trigger EmpTransfer
after insert on EMPLOYEE
after update of SupervisorSSN
for each row
on EMPLOYEE
update EMPLOYEE
for each row
set Span = Span + 1
begin
where SSN =
update EMPLOYEE
new.SupervisorSSN;
set Span = Span - 1
create trigger EmpQuit where SSN =
after delete on EMPLOYEE old.SupervisorSSN;
for each row update EMPLOYEE
update EMPLOYEE set Span = Span + 1
set Span = Span - 1 where SSN =
where SSN = new.SupervisorSSN;
old.SupervisorSSN; end;
Active Databases CIS 671 22
 9. COMPANY Database
Propagate Span up the supervisor tree.
EMPLOYEE(Name, SSN, Salary, DNO, SupervisorSSN, JobCode, Span)
A 123 456 4
B 456 789
new value 8

Supervisor

create trigger EmpPropagate

after update of Span on
EMPLOYEE +(new.Span - old.Span)
for each row decrease (4 - 5) = -1
update EMPLOYEE increase (4 - 3) = +1
set Span = Span +
(new.Span - old.Span)
where SSN =
new.SupervisorSSN;
Active Databases CIS 671 23
10. For each PERSON, record their mother,
father and number of descendants.
PERSONS(Name, Mother, Father, NumDescendants)

After insert, update the mother and father.

create trigger NewMother create trigger NewFather
after insert on PERSONS after insert on PERSONS
for each row for each row
update PERSONS update PERSONS
set NumDescendants set NumDescendants
= NumDescendants + 1 = NumDescendants + 1
where Name = new.Mother; where Name = new.Father;

Then update the maternal and paternal ancestors.

Active Databases CIS 671 24
 10. For each PERSON, record their mother,
father and number of descendants.
PERSONS(Name, Mother, Father, NumDescendants)

Update the maternal and paternal ancestors.

create trigger MaternalAncestor
after update of NumDescendants create trigger
on PERSONS PaternalAncestor after
for each row update of NumDescendants
update PERSONS on PERSONS
set NumDescendants
= NumDescendants /* Similar.
+ new.NumDescendants Just replace “Mother”
- old.NumDescendants with “Father.” */
where Name = new.Mother;

At nth level of family tree, how many triggers?

Active Databases CIS 671 25