SHEET METALWORKING

• Cutting Operations
• Bending Operations
• Drawing
• Other Sheet Metal Forming Operations
• Dies and Presses for Sheet Metal Processes
• Sheet Metal Operations Not Performed on Presses
• Bending of Tube Stock

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Sheet Metalworking Defined

Cutting and forming operations performed on relatively

thin sheets of metal
• Thickness of sheet metal = 0.4 mm (1/64 in) to 6 mm
(1/4 in)
• Thickness of plate stock > 6 mm
• Operations usually performed as cold working

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Sheet and Plate Metal Products

• Sheet and plate metal parts for consumer and

industrial products such as
 Automobiles and trucks
 Airplanes
 Railway cars and locomotives
 Farm and construction equipment
 Small and large appliances
 Office furniture
 Computers and office equipment

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Advantages of Sheet Metal Parts

• High strength
• Good dimensional accuracy
• Good surface finish
• Relatively low cost
• For large quantities, economical mass production
operations are available

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Sheet Metalworking Terminology

1. “Punch‑and‑die”
 Tooling to perform cutting, bending, and drawing
2. “Stamping press”
 Machine tool that performs most sheet metal
operations
3. “Stampings”
 Sheet metal products

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Three Major Categories of
Sheet Metal Processes
1. Cutting
 Shearing to separate large sheets; or cut part
perimeters or make holes in sheets
2. Bending
 Straining sheet around a straight axis
3. Drawing
 Forming of sheet into convex or concave shapes

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Cutting
Shearing between two
sharp cutting edges

Figure 20.1 ‑ Shearing of

sheet metal between two
cutting edges:
(1) just before the punch
contacts work

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Figure 20.1 ‑ Shearing of sheet
metal between two cutting
edges:
(2) punch begins to push into
work, causing plastic
deformation

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Figure 20.1 ‑ Shearing of
sheet metal between two
cutting edges:
(3) punch compresses and
penetrates into work
causing a smooth cut
surface

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Figure 20.1 ‑ Shearing of sheet
metal between two cutting
edges:
(4) fracture is initiated at the
opposing cutting edges which
separates the sheet

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Shearing, Blanking, and Punching

Three principal operations in pressworking that cut

sheet metal:
• Shearing
• Blanking
• Punching

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Shearing

Sheet metal cutting operation along a straight line

between two cutting edges
• Typically used to cut large sheets into smaller
sections for subsequent operations

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Figure 20.3 ‑ Shearing operation:
(a) side view of the shearing operation
(b) front view of power shears equipped with inclined upper cutting blade
Symbol v indicates motion

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Blanking and Punching

Blanking - sheet metal cutting to separate piece from

surrounding stock
• Cut piece is the desired part, called a blank
Punching - sheet metal cutting similar to blanking
except cut piece is scrap, called a slug
• Remaining stock is the desired part

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Figure 20.4 ‑ (a) Blanking and (b) punching

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 Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting

Distance between the punch and die

• Typical values range between 4% and 8% of stock
thickness
 If too small, fracture lines pass each other,
causing larger force
 If too large, metal is pinched between cutting
edges and excessive burr results

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 Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting

• Recommended clearance can be calculated by:

c = at
where c = clearance; a = allowance; and t = stock
thickness

• Allowance ‘a’ is determined according to type of

metal

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 Allowance ‘a’ for
Three Sheet Metal Groups

Metal group a
1100S and 5052S aluminum alloys, all 0.045
tempers
2024ST and 6061ST aluminum alloys; brass, 0.060
soft cold rolled steel, soft stainless steel

Cold rolled steel, half hard; stainless steel, half 0.075

hard and full hard

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 Punch and Die Sizes for
Blanking and Punching
For a round blank of diameter Db:
Blanking punch diameter = Db ‑ 2c
Blanking die diameter = Db
where c = clearance
For a round hole of diameter Dh:
Hole punch diameter = Dh
Hole die diameter = Dh + 2c
where c = clearance

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Figure 20.6 ‑ Die size determines blank size Db; punch size
determines hole size Dh.; c = clearance

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 Angular Clearance
Purpose: allows slug or blank to drop through die
• Typical values: 0.25 to 1.5 on each side

Figure 20.7 ‑ Angular

clearance

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Cutting Forces

Important for determining press size (tonnage)

F=StL
where S = shear strength of metal; t = stock thickness,
and L = length of cut edge

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©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Bending
Straining sheetmetal around a straight axis to take a
permanent bend

Figure 20.11 ‑ (a) Bending of sheet metal

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
Metal on inside of neutral plane is compressed, while
metal on outside of neutral plane is stretched

Figure 20.11 ‑ (b) both compression and tensile elongation of the

metal occur in bending
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 Types of Sheetmetal Bending

• V‑bending - performed with a V‑shaped die

• Edge bending - performed with a wiping die

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 V-Bending
• For low production
• Performed on a press brake
• V-dies are simple and inexpensive

Figure 20.12 ‑
(a) V‑bending

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Edge Bending
• For high production
• Pressure pad required
• Dies are more complicated and costly

Figure 20.12 ‑ (b) edge bending

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Bend Allowance Formula

A
BA  2 (R  K bat )
360

where BA = bend allowance; A = bend angle; R= bend

radius; t = stock thickness; and Kba is factor to
estimate stretching
• If R < 2t, Kba = 0.33
• If R  2t, Kba = 0.50

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Springback in Bending

Springback = increase in included angle of bent part

relative to included angle of forming tool after tool is
removed
• Reason for springback:
 When bending pressure is removed, elastic
energy remains in bent part, causing it to recover
partially toward its original shape

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
Figure 20.13 ‑ Springback in bending shows itself as a decrease in
bend angle and an increase in bend radius: (1) during bending,
the work is forced to take the radius Rb and included angle Ab'
of the bending tool (punch in V‑bending), (2) after punch is
removed, the work springs back to radius R and angle A'

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Bending Force

Maximum bending force estimated as follows:

K bf TSwt 2
F
D

where F = bending force; TS = tensile strength of sheet

metal; w = part width in direction of bend axis; and t =
stock thickness. For V- bending, Kbf = 1.33; for edge
bending, Kbf = 0.33

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
Figure 20.14 ‑ Die opening dimension D: (a) V‑die, (b) wiping die

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Drawing

Sheet metal forming to make cup‑shaped, box‑shaped,

or other complex‑curved, hollow‑shaped parts
• Sheet metal blank is positioned over die cavity and
then punch pushes metal into opening
• Products: beverage cans, ammunition shells,
automobile body panels

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
Figure 20.19 ‑
(a) Drawing of a
cup‑shaped part:
(1) start of operation
before punch
contacts work
(2) near end of
stroke

(b) Corresponding
workpart:
(1) starting blank
(2) drawn part

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Clearance in Drawing

• Sides of punch and die separated by a clearance c

given by:
c = 1.1 t
where t = stock thickness
• In other words, clearance = about 10% greater than
stock thickness

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Drawing Ratio DR

Most easily defined for cylindrical shape:

Db
DR 
Dp

where Db = blank diameter; and Dp = punch diameter

• Indicates severity of a given drawing operation
 Upper limit = 2.0

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Reduction r

• Again, defined for cylindrical shape:

Db  Dp
r
Db

• Value of r should be less than 0.50

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
• The drawing force required to performa a given
operation is :

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
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©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Thickness‑to‑Diameter Ratio

Thickness of starting blank divided by blank diameter

Thickness-to-diameter ratio = t/Db
• Desirable for t/Db ratio to be greater than 1%
• As t/Db decreases, tendency for wrinkling increases

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Shapes other than Cylindrical Cups

• Square or rectangular boxes (as in sinks),

• Stepped cups,
• Cones,
• Cups with spherical rather than flat bases,
• Irregular curved forms (as in automobile body panels)

• Each of these shapes presents its own unique

technical problems in drawing

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Other Sheet Metal Forming on Presses

Other sheet metal forming operations performed on

conventional presses
• Operations performed with metal tooling
• Operations performed with flexible rubber tooling

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Ironing
• Makes wall thickness of cylindrical cup more uniform
• Examples: beverage cans and artillery shells

Figure 20.25 ‑ Ironing to achieve a more uniform wall thickness in a

drawn cup: (1) start of process; (2) during process
Note thinning and elongation of walls

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Embossing
• Used to create indentations in sheet, such as raised
(or indented) lettering or strengthening ribs

Figure 20.26 ‑ Embossing: (a) cross‑section of punch and die

configuration during pressing; (b) finished part with embossed ribs

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Guerin Process

Figure 20.28 ‑ Guerin process: (1) before and (2) after

Symbols v and F indicate motion and applied force respectively

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Advantages of Guerin Process

• Low tooling cost

• Form block can be made of wood, plastic, or other
materials that are easy to shape
• Rubber pad can be used with different form blocks
• Process attractive in small quantity production

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Dies for Sheet Metal Processes

Most pressworking operations performed with

conventional punch‑and‑die tooling
• Custom‑designed for particular part
• The term stamping die sometimes used for high
production dies

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
Figure 20.30 ‑ Components of a punch and die for a blanking operation

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
Figure 20.31 ‑
(a) Progressive
die;
(b) associated
strip
development

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Figure 20.32 ‑ Components of a typical mechanical
drive stamping press

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Types of Stamping Press Frame

• Gap frame – configuration of the letter C and often

referred to as a C‑frame
• Straight‑sided frame – box-like construction for higher
tonnage

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Figure 20.33 ‑ Gap frame
press for sheet
metalworking
(photo courtesy of E. W.
Bliss Company)
Capacity = 1350 kN (150
tons)

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
Figure 20.34 ‑
Press brake with
bed width of
9.15 m (30 ft)
and capacity of
11,200 kN
(1250 tons);
two workers
are positioning
plate stock for
bending
(photo courtesy of
Niagara
Machine & Tool
Works)

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Figure 20.35 ‑ Several sheet metal parts produced on a turret
press, showing variety of hole shapes possible
(photo courtesy of Strippet, Inc.)

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Figure 20.36 ‑ Computer numerical control turret press
(photo courtesy of Strippet, Inc.)

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 Figure 20.37 ‑
Straight‑sided frame press
(photo courtesy Greenerd
Press & Machine
Company, Inc.)

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Power and Drive Systems

• Hydraulic presses - use a large piston and cylinder to

drive the ram
 Longer ram stroke than mechanical types
 Suited to deep drawing
 Slower than mechanical drives
• Mechanical presses – convert rotation of motor to
linear motion of ram
 High forces at bottom of stroke
 Suited to blanking and punching

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Sheet Metal Operations
Not Performed on Presses
• Stretch forming
• Roll bending and forming
• Spinning
• High‑energy‑rate forming processes.

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Stretch Forming
Sheet metal is stretched and simultaneously bent to
achieve shape change

Figure 20.39 ‑ Stretch forming: (1) start of process; (2) form die is
pressed into the work with force Fdie, causing it to be stretched and
bent over the form. F = stretching force

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Force Required in Stretch Forming

F  LtYf

where F = stretching force; L = length of sheet in

direction perpendicular to stretching; t =
instantaneous stock thickness; and Yf = flow stress of
work metal
• Die force Fdie can be determined by balancing vertical
force components

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Roll Bending
Large metal sheets and plates are formed into curved
sections using rolls

Figure 20.40 ‑ Roll bending

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Roll Forming
Continuous bending process in which opposing rolls
produce long sections of formed shapes from coil or
strip stock

Figure 20.41 ‑ Roll

forming of a
continuous
channel
section:
(1) straight rolls
(2) partial form
(3) final form

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Spinning

Metal forming process in which an axially symmetric

part is gradually shaped over a rotating mandrel
using a rounded tool or roller
• Three types:
1. Conventional spinning
2. Shear spinning
3. Tube spinning

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
Figure 20.42 ‑ Conventional spinning: (1) setup at start of process;
(2) during spinning; and (3) completion of process

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 High‑Energy‑Rate Forming (HERF)

Processes to form metals using large amounts of

energy over a very short time
• HERF processes include:
 Explosive forming
 Electrohydraulic forming
 Electromagnetic forming

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Explosive Forming

Use of explosive charge to form sheet (or plate) metal

into a die cavity
• Explosive charge causes a shock wave whose
energy is transmitted to force part into cavity
• Applications: large parts, typical of aerospace
industry

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Figure 20.45 ‑ Explosive forming:
(1) setup, (2) explosive is detonated, and
(3) shock wave forms part and plume escapes water surface

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
 Electromagnetic Forming

Sheet metal is deformed by mechanical force of an

electromagnetic field induced in workpart by an
energized coil
• Presently the most widely used HERF process
• Applications: tubular parts

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
Figure 20.47 ‑ Electromagnetic forming: (1) setup in which coil is
inserted into tubular workpart surrounded by die; (2) formed part

©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”