Airfoil

An airfoil (in American English, or aerofoil in British English) is the

shape of a wing or blade (of a propeller or ship's screw or sail) as
seen in cross-section. It is passed through a fluid in order to provide
either lift or downforce, depending on its application. Subsonic-flight
airfoils have a characteristic shape with a rounded leading edge,
followed by a sharp trailing edge, and often with camber.
 Lift and Drag curves for a typical airfoil
To understand lift itself, see lift. As well as the wing, an aircraft's
horizontal and vertical stabilizers are airfoils. Airfoils are also found in
propellers, fans, compressors and turbines. Sails are also airfoils, and
the underwater fins of sailboats, such as centerboards, are similar in
cross-section and operate on the same principles as airfoils.
Swimming and flying creatures and even many plants and sessile
organisms employ airfoils; common examples being bird wings, the
bodies of fishes, and the shape of sand dollars.
 Flap (aircraft)
Flaps are hinged surfaces on the trailing or leading
edge of the wings of a fixed-wing aircraft which, when
deployed, increase the lift and drag of a wing.
Lift is increased by:
increasing the camber of the wing.
increasing the size of the effective lifting surface by
increasing the wetted area.
Drag is increased by:
increasing the wetted area of the wing, resulting in more
skin friction drag.
increasing the induced drag of the wing.
Flaps are usually fully extended while landing to allow the
aircraft to fly more slowly (by increasing the lift generated
by the wings at slow speeds) and to steepen the
approach to the landing site. Depending on the aircraft
type, configuration and method of takeoff (e.g., short
field, soft field, normal, etc.), flaps are often partially
extended for take-off to give the aircraft more lift when
trying to leave the ground.
Some gliders not only use flaps when landing but also in
flight to optimize the camber of the wing for the chosen
speed. At lower speeds when thermalling, positive flap is
used, i.e., flaps are lowered. At higher speeds a negative
flap setting is used, i.e. the flaps are raised. Negative flap
is also used during the initial stage of an aerotow launch
and at the end of the landing run in order to maintain
better control by the ailerons.
Triple-slotted trailing-edge flaps on a Boeing 747 fully
extended for landing at Heathrow Airport, London.
Four types of flaps
Types of flap systems include:
Kruger flap - Droop flap on the leading edge
Plain flap — rotates on a simple hinge.
Split flap — upper and lower surfaces are separate, the lower surface
operates like a plain flap, but the upper surface stays immobile or
moves only slightly.
Fowler flap — slides backwards before hinging downwards, thereby
increasing both camber and chord, creating a larger wing surface
better tuned for lower speeds.
Fairey-Youngman flap - moves bodily down before moving aft an
rotating.
Slotted flap — a slot (or gap) between the flap and the wing enables
high pressure air from below the wing to re-energize the air blowing
over the flap. This helps the airflow to stay attached to the flap,
delaying the stall.
Blown flaps — systems that blow engine air over the upper surface of
the flap at certain angles to improve lift characteristics.
Slats, also known as leading-edge flaps, have a similar purpose to
trailing-edge flaps, save they are located on the leading edge of the
wing.
 Flight Controls
Aircraft flight controls allow a pilot to adjust and control
the aircraft's flight attitude.
Development of an effective set of flight controls was a
critical advance in the development of the aircraft. Early
efforts at fixed-wing aircraft design succeeded in
generating sufficient lift to get the aircraft off the ground,
but once aloft, the aircraft proved uncontrollable, often
with disastrous results. The development of effective flight
controls is what allowed stable flight.
This article describes controls used on a fixed wing
aircraft of conventional design. Other fixed wing aircraft
configurations may use different control surfaces but the
basic principles remain. The controls for rotary wing
aircraft (helicopter or autogyro) are completely different.
 Rotation around the three axes
An aircraft is free to rotate around three axes which are
perpendicular to each other and intersect at the plane's
center of gravity (CG). To control position and direction a pilot must
be able to control rotation about each of them.
Vertical - The vertical axis passes through the plane from top to
bottom. Rotation about this axis is called yaw. Yaw changes the
direction the aircraft's nose is pointing, left or right. The primary
control of yaw is with the rudder. Ailerons also have a secondary
effect on yaw.
Longitudinal - The longitudinal axis passes through the plane from
nose to tail. Rotation about this axis is called bank or roll. Bank
changes the orientation of the aircraft's wings with respect to the
downward force of gravity. The pilot changes bank angle by
increasing the lift on one wing and decreasing it on the other. This
differential lift causes bank rotation around the longitudinal axis.
The ailerons are the primary control of bank. The rudder also has a
secondary effect on bank.
Lateral - The lateral axis passes through the plane from wingtip to
wingtip. Rotation about this axis is called pitch. Pitch changes the
vertical direction the aircraft's nose is pointing. The elevators are
the primary control of pitch.
It is important to note that these axes move with the aircraft, and
change relative to the earth as the aircraft moves. For example, for
an aircraft whose left wing is pointing straight down, its "vertical"
axis is parallel with the ground, while its "lateral" axis is
perpendicular to the ground.
BMI Airbus A320, showing The tail of a Lufthansa
position of aileron, flap and Airbus A319, showing
slat flight controls flight controls
 Main Control Surfaces
The main control surfaces are attached to the airframe on
hinges so they may move and thus deflect the air stream
passing over them. This redirection of the air stream
generates an unbalanced force to rotate the plane about
the associated axis
Ailerons - Ailerons are mounted on the back edge of each
wing near the wingtips, and move in opposite directions.
When the pilot moves the stick left, or turns the wheel
counter-clockwise, the left aileron goes up and the right
aileron goes down. A raised aileron reduces lift on that
wing and a lowered one increases lift, so moving the stick
left causes the left wing to drop and the right wing to rise.
This causes the plane to bank left and begin to turn to the
left. Centering the stick returns the ailerons to neutral
maintaining the bank angle. The plane will continue to
turn until opposite aileron motion returns the bank angle
to zero to fly straight.
Elevators - An elevator is mounted on the back edge of
the horizontal stabilizer on each side of the fin in the tail.
They move up and down together. When the pilot pulls
the stick backward, the elevators go up. Pushing the stick
forward causes the elevators to go down. Raised
elevators push down on the tail and cause the nose to
pitch up. This makes the wings fly at a higher angle of
attack which generates more lift and more drag.
Centering the stick returns the elevators to neutral and
stops the change of pitch.
Rudder - The rudder is mounted on the back edge of the
fin in the tail. When the pilot pushes the left pedal, the
rudder deflects left. Pushing the right pedal causes the
rudder to deflect right. Deflecting the rudder right pushes
the tail left and causes the nose to yaw right. Centering
the rudder pedals returns the rudder to neutral and stops
the yaw.
Control surfaces
1. Winglet
2. Low-Speed Aileron
3. High-Speed Aileron
4. Flap track fairing
5. Krüger flaps
6. Slats
7. Three slotted inner flaps
8. Three slotted outer flaps
9. Spoilers
10. Spoilers-Air brakes
 Secondary effects of controls
Ailerons: The ailerons primarily control bank. Whenever lift
is increased, induced drag is also increased. When the stick
is moved left to bank the aircraft to the left, the right aileron
is lowered which increases lift on the right wing and
therefore increases drag on the right wing. Using ailerons
causes adverse yaw, meaning the nose of the aircraft yaws
in a direction opposite to the aileron application. When
moving the stick to the left to bank the wings, adverse yaw
moves the nose of the aircraft to the right. Adverse yaw is
more pronounced for light aircraft with long wings, such as
gliders. It is counteracted by the pilot with the rudder.
Differential ailerons are ailerons which have been rigged
such that the downgoing aileron deflects less than the
upward-moving one, reducing adverse yaw.
Rudder: Using the rudder causes one wing to move
forward faster than the other. Increased speed means
increased lift, and hence rudder use causes a roll effect.
Out of all the control inputs, rudder input creates the
greatest amount of adverse effect. For this reason
ailerons and rudder are generally used together on light
aircraft. When turning to the left, the control column is
moved left, and adequate left rudder is applied. If too
much left rudder is applied the aircraft could enter a skid
and then enter a spin. However, rudder inputs are also a
good method to alter course in a light aircraft instead of
aileron inputs as they free the pilots hands, so he/she can
carry out more tasks, or check any navigational charts
which are required on a cross country flight.
 Turning the aircraft
Unlike a boat, turning an aircraft is not normally
carried out with the rudder. Instead the ailerons
are used to bank the aircraft. The forces on the
plane cause the aircraft to turn in the same
direction as the bank, with a steeper bank
causing a faster turn. While this is happening
the nose of the aircraft has a tendency to drop,
and the aircraft may also yaw, so the nose is
not pointing in the direction it is flying. The
elevators are used to counteract the first, and
the rudder to counteract the second.
Alternate main control surfaces
Some aircraft configurations have non-
standard primary controls. For example
instead of elevators at the back of the
stabilizers, the entire tailplane may change
angle. Most supersonic aircraft will have a
fully-moving tail. Some aircraft have a
tail in the shape of a V, and the moving parts
at the back of those combine the functions of
elevators and rudder. Delta wing aircraft may
have "elevons" at the back of the wing, which
combine the functions of elevators and
ailerons.
 Secondary control surfaces
Trimming
Trimming controls allow a pilot to balance the lift and drag being
produced by the wings and control surfaces over a wide range of
load and airspeed. This reduces the effort required to adjust or
maintain a desired flight attitude.
Trim Tabs - Trim tabs are used to adjust the position of an
associated main control surface. They are often hinged to the back
edge of the control surface with a control in the cockpit. Some trim
tabs on light aircraft are fixed sheets of metal that can be bent while
the aircraft is on the ground but cannot be controlled in flight. Both
types function by redirecting the air stream to generate a force
which holds the main control surface in the desired position.
Because they are furthest from the pivot point of the main control
surface, their small aerodynamic effects are magnified by leverage
to achieve the deflection of the main surface.
Trimming Tail Plane - Except for very light aircraft, trim
tabs on elevators are unable to provide the force and
range of motion desired. To provide the appropriate trim
force the entire horizontal tail plane is made adjustable
in pitch. This allows the pilot to select exactly the right
amount of positive or negative lift from the tail plane
while reducing drag from the elevators.
Control Horn - A control horn is a section of control
surface which projects ahead of the pivot point. It
generates a force which tends to increase the surface's
deflection thus reducing the control pressure
experienced by the pilot. Control horns may also
incorporate a counterweight which helps to balance the
control and prevent it from "fluttering" in the airstream.
Some designs feature separate anti-flutter weights.
In the simplest cases trimming is done by a mechanical
spring which adds appropriate force to the pilot's control.
Whilst carrying out certain flight excersises a lot of trim
could be required inorder to maintain the desired angle of
attack. This mainly applies to slow flight, where a lot of
trim is required to maintain the nose up attitude.
Trim doesn't only apply to the elevator, as there is also
trim for the rudder and ailerons. The use of this is to
counter the affects of slip stream, or to counter the
affects of the centre of gravity being to one side. This can
be caused when there is a larger weight on one side of
the aircraft compared to the other, such as if one fuel
tank has a lot more fuel in it then the other, or when there
is heavier people on one side of the aircraft then the
other.
 KLM Fokker 70, showing position of flap and airbrake/spoiler flight
controls.The airbrakes/spoilers are the lifted cream-coloured panels on
the wing upper surface (in this picture there are five on the right wing).
The flaps are the large drooped surfaces on the trailing edge of the wing
Spoilers - On very high lift/low drag aircraft like sailplanes, spoilers
are used to disrupt airflow over the wing and greatly reduce the
amount of lift. This allows a glider pilot to lose altitude without gaining
excessive airpeed. Spoilers are sometimes called "lift dumpers".
Spoilers, that can be used asymmetrically are called spoilerons and
are able to effect an aircraft's roll.
Flaps - Flaps are mounted on the back edge of each wing near the
wing roots. They are deflected down to increase the effective
curvature of the wing and produce additional lift, and also reduce the
stalling speed of the wing. They are used during low speed, high
angle of attack flight like descent for landing. Some aircraft use
flaperons instead, which can also be used for roll control.
Slats are extensions to the front of a wing for lift augmentation, and
are intended to reduce the stalling speed by altering the airflow over
the wing. Slats may be fixed or retractable - fixed slats (e.g. as on
the Fieseler Storch) give excellent slow speed and STOL
capabilities, but compromise higher speed performance. Retractable
slats, as on most airliners, allow higher lift on take off, but retract for
cruising.
Air brakes - these are used on high speed aircraft and are
intended to increase the drag of an aircraft without altering the
amount of lift. Airbrakes and spoilers are sometimes the same
device - on most airliners for example, the combined
spoiler/airbrakes act to simultaneously remove lift and to slow
the aircraft's forward motion. Ground spoilers, which are a
combination of airbrakes/flight spoilers along with additional
panels are deployed upon touchdown to assist braking the
aircraft by applying positive downward forces which also
ensures that the aircraft remains planted firmly on the ground.
Conventional brakes, used in cars, are often ineffective at the
high speeds of modern aircraft as they will over heat and lose
efficiency. Therefore increasing the drag of an aircraft with air
brakes and spoilers will eventually slow the aircraft down to a
speed at which conventional brakes become effective.
Reversing the direction of the engines helps to obtain this
speed.
 Slats
Slats are small aerodynamic surfaces on the
leading edge of the wings of
fixed-wing aircraft which, when deployed,
allow the wing to operate at a higher
angle of attack. Lift is a product of angle of
attack and speed, so by deploying slats an
aircraft can fly slower or take off and land in a
shorter distance. They are usually used while
landing or performing manoeuvres which take
the aircraft close to the stall, but are usually
retracted in normal flight to minimise drag.
The position of the leading edge
The Fieseler Fi 156 Storch had
slats on an airliner (Airbus A-300).
permanently extended slats on its
In this picture, the slats are
leading edges (fixed slats).
extended.
Types include:
Automatic - the slat lies flush with the wing leading edge until reduced
aerodynamic forces allow it to extend by way of springs when
needed. This type is typically used on light aircraft.
Fixed - the slat is permanently extended. This is rarely used, except
on specialist low-speed aircraft.
Powered - the slat extension can be controlled by the pilot. This is
commonly used on airliners.
The chord of the slat is typically only a few percent of the wing chord.
They may extend over the outer third of the wing or may cover the
entire leading edge. Slats work by increasing the camber of the wing,
and also by opening a small gap (the slot) between the slat and the
wing leading edge, allowing a small amount of high-pressure air from
the lower surface to reach the upper surface, where it helps postpone
the stall.
The slat has a counterpart found in the wings of some birds, the alula
– a feather or group of feathers which the bird can extend under
control of its "thumb".